charge traps; Al(III) and B(III) typically serve as hole traps while electron vacancies, titanium, germanium, and phosphorus atoms serve as electron traps. The trapped charge carriers can be released by heating; their recombination is the cause of thermoluminescence. The mobility of interstitial ions depends strongly on temperature. Hydrogen ions are mobile down to 10 K, but alkali metal ions become mobile only at temperatures around and above 200 K. The hydroxyl defects can be measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. The trapped holes can be measured by electron spin resonance. The Al−Na+ defects show as an acoustic loss peak due to their stress-induced motion; the Al−Li+ defects do not form a potential well so are not detectable this way. Some of the radiation-induced defects during their thermal annealing produce thermoluminescence; defects related to aluminium, titanium, and germanium can be distinguished. Swept crystals are crystals that have undergone a solid-state electrodiffusion purification process. Sweeping involves heating the crystal above 500 °C in a hydrogen-free atmosphere, with a voltage gradient of at least 1 kV/cm, for several hours (usually over 12). The migration of impurities and the gradual replacement of alkali metal ions with hydrogen (when swept in air) or electron holes (when swept in vacuum) causes a weak electric current through the crystal; decay of this current to a constant value signals the end of the process. The crystal is then left to cool, while the electric field is maintained. The impurities are concentrated at the cathode region of the crystal, which is cut off afterwards and discarded. Swept crystals have increased resistance to radiation, as the dose effects are dependent on the level of alkali metal impurities; they are suitable for use in devices exposed to ionizing radiation, e.g. for nuclear and space technology. Sweeping under vacuum at higher temperatures and higher field strengths yields yet more radiation-hard crystals. The level and character of impurities can be measured by infrared spectroscopy. Quartz can be swept in both α and β phase; sweeping in β phase is faster, but the phase transition may induce twinning. Twinning can be mitigated by subjecting the crystal to compression stress in the X direction, or an AC or DC electric field along the X axis while the crystal cools through the phase transformation temperature region. Sweeping can also be used to introduce one kind of an impurity into the crystal. Lithium, sodium, and hydrogen swept crystals are