Blum Blum Shub (B.B.S.) is a pseudorandom number generator proposed in 1986 by Lenore Blum, Manuel Blum and Michael Shub that is derived from Michael O. Rabin's one-way function. Blum Blum Shub takes the form , where M = pq is the product of two large primes p and q. At each step of the algorithm, some output is derived from xn+1; the output is commonly either the bit parity of xn+1 or one or more of the least significant bits of x<sub>n+1</sub>. The seed x0 should be an integer that is co-prime to M (i.e. p and q are not factors of x0) and not 1 or 0. The two primes, p and q, should both be congruent to 3 (mod 4) (this guarantees that each quadratic residue has one square root which is also a quadratic residue), and should be safe primes with a small gcd((p-3)/2, (q-3)/2) (this makes the cycle length large). An interesting characteristic of the Blum Blum Shub generator is the possibility to calculate any xi value directly (via Euler's theorem): , where is the Carmichael function. (Here we have ). Security There is a proof reducing its security to the computational difficulty of factoring. When the primes are chosen appropriately, and O(log log M) lower-order bits of each xn are output, then in the limit as M grows large, distinguishing the output bits from random should be at least as difficult as solving the quadratic residuosity problem modulo M. Example Let , and (where is the seed). We can expect to get a large cycle length for those small numbers, because . The generator starts to evaluate by using and creates the sequence , , , = 9, 81, 236, 36, 31, 202. The following table shows the output (in bits) for the different bit selection methods used to determine the output. The following Common Lisp implementation provides a simple demonstration of the generator, in particular regarding the three bit selection methods. It is important to note that the requirements imposed upon the parameters p, q and s'' (seed) are not checked. (defun get-number-of-1-bits (bits) "Returns the number of 1-valued bits in the integer-encoded BITS." (declare (type (integer 0 *) bits)) (the (integer 0 *) (logcount bits))) (defun get-even-parity-bit (bits) "Returns the even parity bit of the integer-encoded BITS." (declare (type (integer 0 *) bits)) (the bit (mod (get-number-of-1-bits bits) 2))) (defun get-least-significant-bit (bits)