delayed recovery of the salt marshes to the lack of wave action/physical energy and oxygen in the environment, important factors to the natural degradation of oil. Issa and Vempatti also found that mangrove forests had mostly recovered by 1995. Michel et al. found that salt marshes had a low recovery rate after the oil spill but found that mangrove forests had not recovered in 2003. Linden and Husain in 2002, as well as Issa and Vempatti in 2018, reported that the oil had largely lost its toxicity by the time it reached shore; however, the oil coated vegetation and blocked light and air, damaging it. Both groups of researchers also found that the spill caused the death of many seabirds, including almost 30,000 grebes and cormorants, by coating the birds’ feathers. Linden and Husain found that marine turtles were relatively unaffected by the spill, except the Hawksbill sea turtle had a lower hatching rate that could have been caused by the 1991 spill. They also concluded that fish species in the northern Gulf were relatively unaffected by the spill. Political and economic impacts In the first days of the spill, President George Bush was quoted as calling the spill strategy a “sick” act by Saddam Hussein. In January 1991, Andrew Rosenthal for The New York Times observed the US government’s eagerness to utilize the act to further demonize Saddam Hussein and to solidify Hussein as deeply immoral. A representative of the Pentagon Pete Williams described the spill as “environmental terrorism,” and Roger E. McManus of the Center for Marine Conservation stated Hussein “should be held accountable for his despicable crimes against the environment." The Gulf War oil spill is considered “the world's first known act of large-scale eco-terrorism." The Gulf War oil spill caused significant economic damage to the fishing and oil industries around the Persian Gulf. Because of the war, and particularly because of the spill, fish and prawn fishing in the Gulf were halted in 1991. The spill also led to damage of fishing equipment and infrastructure. According to Issa and Vempatti, the spill caused a 1.5-2% loss of Kuwait’s oil reserves---a $12.3 billion to $38.4 billion loss. See also Kuwaiti oil fires Environmental impact of war References Aftermath of the Gulf War Oil spills in Asia 1991 disasters in Asia 1991 in Kuwait History of Kuwait Man-made disasters in Kuwait 1991 disasters in Kuwait