in Paris without examination. Oxford reciprocated by demanding examinations from Paris masters and ignoring the papal privileges Paris enjoyed.) Finally, the pope could issue bulls guaranteeing the autonomy of the university from the interference of local civil or diocesan authorities, a process that had begun with the issuing of the 1231 bull for the University of Paris. Although not a necessary criterion, bestowing the "privileges of Paris" to other became customary. The pope was not the only supplier of privileges. The Holy Roman Emperor also issued imperial charters granting much the same privileges, starting with the University of Naples in 1224. A universal student body, one or more higher faculties, teaching by masters, the right to teach in other , retention of benefices, autonomy: those were common features in . In other respects (structure, administration, curriculum etc.), varied. Generally speaking, most tended to copy one of two old models: the student-centred system of Bologne or the master-centered structure of Paris. History Most of the early were found in Italy, France, England, Spain and Portugal, and these were considered the most prestigious places of learning in Europe. The Vatican continues to designate many new universities as , although the popular significance of this honour has declined over the centuries. As early as the 13th century, scholars from a were encouraged to give lecture courses at other institutes across Europe and to share documents, and this led to the current academic culture seen in modern European universities. The universities generally considered in the 13th century were: University of Bologna (founded in 1088) University of Oxford (founded in 1167) University of Cambridge (founded in 1209) University of Palencia (founded in 1212) University of Paris (founded in 1215) University of Arezzo (founded in 1215) University of Salamanca (founded in 1218) University of Padua (founded in 1222) University of Naples Federico II (founded in 1224) University of Toulouse (founded in 1229) University of Northampton (founded in 1261, closed in 1265) University of Siena (founded in 1240) University of Valladolid (founded in 1241) University of Salerno (uncertain) University of Montpellier (founded in 1289) University of Coimbra (founded in Lisbon in 1290) University of Alcalá (founded in Alcalá de Henares on May 20, 1293) Both theological and secular universities were registered. This list quickly grew as new universities were founded throughout Europe. Many of these universities received formal confirmation of their status as towards the end of