engine, internal combustion engine and automatic controls. 1147 to 1269 – Almohad Caliphate, a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement, started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda 1171 to 1260 – Ayyubid dynasty 1192 to 1489 – Kingdom of Cyprus 1201 to 1274 – Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian polymath who created very accurate tables of planetary motion, an updated planetary model, and critiques of Ptolemaic astronomy. He is often considered the creator of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right, and he is believed to have influenced Copernican heliocentrism 1204 – Sack of Constantinople by the crusaders 1213 to 1288 – Ibn Al-Nafis, discovered the lesser circulatory system of the heart and the lungs, and described the mechanism of breathing and its relation to the blood 1218 to 1221 – Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia marked the beginning of the Mongol conquest of the Islamic states 1241 to 1244 – Mongol invasions of Anatolia 1250 to 1517 – Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo 1258 – Forces of the Mongol Empire sack Baghdad and destroy the House of Wisdom, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age 1260 to 1323 – Mongol invasions of the Levant 1260 – First major defeat the Mongols suffer at Battle of Ain Jalut, Mongol invasion of the Levant is halted 1261 to 1517 – Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo, symbolic title 1275 – Hasan al-Rammah, Arab chemist and engineer who studied gunpowders and explosives, and sketched prototype instruments of warfare, including the first torpedo. He also invented new types of gunpowder, and he invented a new type of fuse and two types of lighters 1299 to 1923 – rise of the Ottoman Empire 1300 – deportation of the last Muslims from Lucera, Italy 1303 – Battle of Marj al-Saffar, defeat for the Mongols, which put an end to Ghazan Khan's invasions of Syria 1332 to 1406 – Ibn Khaldun, set the basis of social sciences such as demography, cultural history, historiography, philosophy of history, sociology and economics 1347 – a fleet of Genoese trading ships fleeing Caffa (Theodosia) reached the port of Messina and spreads the Black Death 1380 – al-Kashi, contributed to development of decimal fractions for approximating algebraic numbers and real numbers such as pi 1393 to 1449 – Ulugh Beg commissions an observatory at Samarqand in Uzbekistan 1394 to 1465 – Appearance of the Arquebus, ancestor of modern firearms, in the Ottoman Empire and Europe