have nice dreams, I have them [more frequently / less infrequently] than dreams in which animals chase me" (or, in theory, vice versa) will such a responder be willing to answer the question—and phrasing the guideline in this way bears its own cost of making the question reveal less about the respondent's propensities because the respondent is no longer forced to "fake" one way or another. In education In education, ipsative assessment is the practice of assessing present performance against the prior performance of the person being assessed. One place where this might be implemented is in reference to tests used with K-12 students in the United States, where value-added modeling of teacher performance is currently popular. Ipsative assessment can be contrasted with criterion-referenced assessment and norm-referenced assessment. Ipsative assessment is used in everyday life, and features heavily in physical education and also in computer games. Encouraging pupils to beat their previous scores can take peer pressure out of situations and eliminates the competitive element associated with norm-based referencing. It can be particularly useful for children with learning disabilities and can improve motivation. See also Concept inventory Criterion-referenced assessment Norm-referenced assessment Psychological assessment Psychometrics Standardized test Two-alternative forced choice References Further reading Blinkhorn, S, Johnson, C and Wood, R. (1988). "Spuriouser and spuriouser:The use of ipsative personality tests." Journal of Occupational Psychology,61,153-162. Experimental psychology Educational psychology