world, such as synthetic fibers, plastics, paints, detergents, pharmaceuticals, adhesives and ammonia as fertilizer and for other uses. Many of these required new catalysts and the utilization of chemical engineering for their cost-effective production. In the mid-twentieth century, control of the electronic structure of semiconductor materials was made precise by the creation of large ingots of extremely pure single crystals of silicon and germanium. Accurate control of their chemical composition by doping with other elements made the production of the solid state transistor in 1951 and made possible the production of tiny integrated circuits for use in electronic devices, especially computers. See also Histories and timelines Atomic theory Cupellation History of chromatography History of electrochemistry History of the molecule History of molecular biology History of physics History of science and technology History of the periodic table History of thermodynamics History of energy History of molecular theory History of materials science List of years in science Nobel Prize in chemistry Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics Timeline of chemical elements discoveries Timeline of chemistry Timeline of materials technology Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes The Chemical History of a Candle The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements (PBS film) Notable chemists listed chronologically: List of chemists Robert Boyle, 1627–1691 Joseph Black, 1728–1799 Joseph Priestley, 1733–1804 Carl Wilhelm Scheele, 1742–1786 Antoine Lavoisier, 1743–1794 Alessandro Volta, 1745–1827 Jacques Charles, 1746–1823 Claude Louis Berthollet, 1748–1822 Amedeo Avogadro, 1776–1856 Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, 1778–1850 Humphry Davy, 1778–1829 Jöns Jacob Berzelius, inventor of modern chemical notation, 1779–1848 Justus von Liebig, 1803–1873 Louis Pasteur, 1822–1895 Stanislao Cannizzaro, 1826–1910 Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, 1829–1896 Dmitri Mendeleev, 1834–1907 Josiah Willard Gibbs, 1839–1903 J. H. van 't Hoff, 1852–1911 William Ramsay, 1852–1916 Svante Arrhenius, 1859–1927 Walther Nernst, 1864–1941 Marie Curie, 1867–1934 Gilbert N. Lewis, 1875–1946 Otto Hahn, 1879–1968 Irving Langmuir, 1881–1957 Linus Pauling, 1901–1994 Glenn T. Seaborg, 1912–1999 Robert Burns Woodward, 1917–1979 Frederick Sanger, 1918–2013 Geoffrey Wilkinson, 1921–1996 Rudolph A. Marcus, 1923– George Andrew Olah, 1926–2017 Elias James Corey, 1928– Akira Suzuki, 1930– Richard F. Heck, 1931–2015 Harold Kroto, 1939–2016 Jean-Marie Lehn, 1939– Peter Atkins, 1940– Barry Sharpless, 1941– Richard Smalley, 1943–2005 Jean-Pierre Sauvage, 1944– Notes References Selected classic papers from the history of chemistry Biographies of Chemists Eric R. Scerri, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2006. Further reading Servos, John W., Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling : the making of