benefited white-collar workers far more than those on the factory floor in the early 20th century. The average annual bonus payouts at U.S. Steel Corporation from 1929 to 1931 were approximately $2,500,000; however, in 1929, $1,623,753 of that went to the president of the company. Real wages for unskilled and low-skilled workers grew little in the 1920s, while long hours in unsafe conditions continued to be the norm. Further, employment instability due to layoffs remained a reality of work life. Welfare capitalism programs rarely worked as intended, company unions only reinforced that authority of management over the terms of employment. Wage incentives (merit raises and bonuses) often led to a speed-up in production for factory lines. As much as these programs meant to encourage loyalty to the company, this effort was often undermined by continued layoffs and frustrations with working conditions. Employees soured on employee representation plans and cultural activities, but they were eager for opportunities to improve their pay with good work and attendance and to gain benefits like medical care. These programs gave workers new expectations for their employers. They were often disappointed in the execution of them but supported their aims. The post-World War II era saw an expansion of these programs for all workers, and today, these benefits remain part of employment relations in many countries. Recently, however, there has been a trend away from this form of welfare capitalism, as corporations have reduced the portion of compensation paid with health care, and shifted from defined benefit pensions to employee-funded defined contribution plans. See also Big Society Chavismo Company store Criticisms of welfare Economic interventionism Humanistic capitalism Involuntary unemployment Social capital Social safety net Socialism of the 21st century Workplace democracy Notes References Arts, Wil and Gelissen John; "Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-art report"; Journal of European Social Policy, vol. 12 (2), pp. 137–58 (2002). Brandes, Stuart D. American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940 (University of Chicago Press, 1976) Crawford, Margaret. Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns (1996) Dixon, John, and Robert P. Scheurell, eds. The State of Social Welfare: The Twentieth Century in Cross-National Review Praeger. 2002. Ebbinghaus, Bernhard, and Philip Manow; Comparing Welfare Capitalism: Social Policy and Political Economy in Europe, Japan and the USA Routledge, 2001 Esping-Andersen, Gosta; Politics against markets, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1985). Esping-Andersen, Gosta; "The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism", Princeton NJ: