oxidation reactions including Sharpless epoxidation, Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, and Sharpless oxyamination. In 1985, Harold Kroto, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley discovered fullerenes, a class of large carbon molecules superficially resembling the geodesic dome designed by architect R. Buckminster Fuller. In 1991, Sumio Iijima used electron microscopy to discover a type of cylindrical fullerene known as a carbon nanotube, though earlier work had been done in the field as early as 1951. This material is an important component in the field of nanotechnology. In 1994, K. C. Nicolaou with his group and Robert A. Holton and his group, achieved the first total synthesis of Taxol. In 1995, Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman produced the first Bose–Einstein condensate, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on the macroscopic scale. Mathematics and chemistry Before the 20th century, chemistry was defined as the science of the nature of matter and its transformations. It was therefore distinct from physics which was not concerned with such dramatic transformation of matter. Moreover, in contrast to physics, chemistry remained predominantly a descriptive and empirical science until the end of the 19th century. Though they developed a consistent quantitative foundation based on notions of atomic and molecular weights, combining proportions, and thermodynamic quantities, chemists had less use of advanced mathematics. Some even expressed reluctance about the use of mathematics within chemistry. For example, the philosopher Auguste Comte wrote in 1830: However, in the second part of the 19th century, the situation began to change as August Kekulé wrote in 1867: Scope of chemistry As understanding of the nature of matter has evolved, so too has the self-understanding of the science of chemistry by its practitioners. This continuing historical process of evaluation includes the categories, terms, aims and scope of chemistry. Additionally, the development of the social institutions and networks which support chemical enquiry are highly significant factors that enable the production, dissemination and application of chemical knowledge. (See Philosophy of chemistry) Chemical industry The later part of the nineteenth century saw a huge increase in the exploitation of petroleum extracted from the earth for the production of a host of chemicals and largely replaced the use of whale oil, coal tar and naval stores used previously. Large-scale production and refinement of petroleum provided feedstocks for liquid fuels such as gasoline and diesel, solvents, lubricants, asphalt, waxes, and for the production of many of the common materials of the modern