around the elbow joint, and a narrow socket at the shoulder joint. The Neanderthal genome project published papers in 2010 and 2014 stating that Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of modern humans, including most humans outside sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a few populations in sub-Saharan Africa, through interbreeding, likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. Recent studies also show that a few Neanderthals began mating with ancestors of modern humans long before the large "out of Africa migration" of the present day non-Africans, as early as 100,000 years ago. In 2016, research indicated that there were three distinct episodes of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals: the first encounter involved the ancestors of non-African modern humans, probably soon after leaving Africa; the second, after the ancestral Melanesian group had branched off (and subsequently had a unique episode of interbreeding with Denisovans); and the third, involving the ancestors of East Asians only. While interbreeding is viewed as the most parsimonious interpretation of the genetic discoveries, the authors point out they cannot conclusively rule out an alternative scenario, in which the source population of non-African modern humans was already more closely related to Neanderthals than other Africans were, due to ancient genetic divisions within Africa. Among the genes shown to differ between present-day humans and Neanderthals were RPTN, SPAG17, CAN15, TTF1 and PCD16. New evidence was discovered at Grotte Mandrin in Malataverne, France, dating back by 10,000 years. Six of the individuals were recognized as Neanderthal, but a modern human upper molar was recovered in between Neanderthal sections. At Grotte Mandrin, the existence of modern human molar inside the Neronian layer prompted researchers to connect this stone tool manufacturing to Homo sapiens. The existence of the homo sapiens molar beside the Neronian solidifies the narrative: Neanderthals and modern humans replaced each other multiple times in same area. Finds at Grotte Mandrin imply the Mediterranean region had a crucial importance in shaping humans' spread into Western Eurasia. Recent research in northern Spain suggests that Neanderthals vanished earlier in Vasco-Cantabrian eastern and southern Iberia. The projected outcome will assist assess the consequences for region systems of resource extraction, subsistence techniques, and environmental–human connections in the Neanderthals' death and modern humans' evolutionary progress. Recent genetic evidence has revealed kinship patterns among recovered Neanderthal remains that suggests inbreeding practices such as pairings between half-siblings and/or uncle/aunt and niece/nephew. Researchers hypothesize that Neanderthals may have become