firm whose approach has been characterized as contrarian. Michael Lee-Chin is a Jamaican billionaire investor who is often associated with contrarian investing. Jim Rogers is an investor and author who is bullish on contrarian investing in Asian markets. Marc Faber is a contrarian investor who publishes the Gloom Boom & Doom Report. David Dreman is a money manager often associated with contrarian investing. He has authored several books on the topic and writes the "Contrarian" column in Forbes magazine. John Maynard Keynes was an early contrarian investor. John Neff, who managed the Vanguard Windsor fund for many years, is also considered a contrarian, though he has described himself as a value investor (and questioned the distinction). Mark Ripple is a money manager often described as a contrarian. He has authored a book covering the topic in detail. Paul Tudor Jones is a contrarian investor who attempts to buy and sell turning points. Howard Marks regularly focuses his client memos on contrarian investing. Humphrey B. Neill has been described as the father of contrary investing; see his book cited above. Allan Gray was a noted South African contrarian investor that believed the best value was typically to be had when the market was down. George Soros is often described as a visionary contrarian investor by analysts who cite his famous shorting of the yen and pound, an act that netted him $2 billion in profits. Examples of contrarian investing Economist John Maynard Keynes was an early contrarian investor when he managed the endowment for King's College, Cambridge from the 1920s to '40s. While most university endowments of the time invested almost exclusively in land and fixed income assets, Keynes was perhaps the first institutional investor to invest heavily in common stocks and international stocks. On average, Keynes's investments out-performed the U.K. market by more than 6% with a strategy similar to, but developed independently of, the value investing paradigm of Benjamin Graham and Charles Dodd. Commonly used contrarian indicators for investor sentiment are Volatility Indexes (informally also referred to as "Fear indexes"), like VIX, which by tracking the prices of financial options, gives a numeric measure of how pessimistic or optimistic market actors at large are. A low number in this index indicates a prevailing optimistic or confident investor outlook for the future, while a high number indicates a pessimistic outlook. By comparing the VIX to the major stock-indexes over longer