of vegetation. The sand dunes are of various stages of evolution and contain plethora of plant species including marram grass (Ammophila arenaria), red fescue, (Festuca rubra), crowberry, (Empetrum nigrum), the cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix), common sedge, (Carex nigra), marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris) and the invasive creeping willow (Salix repens ssp. argentea). Vascular plants are an identified and protected feature of the reserve under the Sands of Forvie and Ythan Estuary SSSI. 15 species are identified on reserve with 10 of which are red book listed species (Astragalus danicus, Carex maritima, Coeloglossum viride, Corollarhiza trifida, Gentianella campestris, Platanthera bifolia, Salsola kali, Mertensia maritima, Radiola linoides and Teesdalia nudicaulis) and five of which are classified as UK scarce species (Equisetum variegatum, Festuca arenaria, Ophioglossum azoricum, Potamogeton filiformis, Puccinellia distans). Four species of tern breed at Forvie, building their nests among the dunes and on the beach. Little terns and arctic terns favour the foreshore and raised beaches, while the sandwich terns and common terns nest amongst the marram tussocks of the dune system. The breeding success of the terns has fluctuated widely over the years, and since 1995 NatureScot have undertaken selected culling of predating species, specifically crows, gulls and foxes. In addition to culling, NatureScot have also trialled the use of decoy terns to attract little terns into the areas protected from foxes by fences, as well as providing artificial shelters for tern chicks to use to avoid crows and gulls. In recent years the colonies of sandwich tern and black headed gulls have had great success in breeding with some of the highest populations recorded to date in 2019. The mudflats of the estuary provide an important wintering ground for migratory birds such as wigeon, oystercatcher, golden plover, lapwing, dunlin, curlew and redshank, and around 15,000 geese may be seen on the estuary each spring. The reserve hosts a population of protected breeding eider that spend the breeding season on reserve, with many heading to the Tay estuary for the winter, although there is also a smaller population that remains year-round. In 2005 the reserve held a population of over 5000 eiders but has since suffered losses and in 2019 recorded a spring peak of 1323 eiders. The cliffs in the northern part of the reserve host breeding colonies of many seabirds, including northern fulmar, shag, cormorant, kittiwake and razorbill. Raptor species such as short-eared owls, kestrel, sparrowhawk, osprey and