consensus on the impact of Walmart on local employment, but most studies on the topic point to a modest increase in retail employment". For example, studies at the University of Missouri found that a new store increases net retail employment in the county by 100 jobs in the short term, half of which disappear over five years as other retail establishments close. Similarly, a net increase in employment (55 jobs) was found in a study of West Virginia counties between 1989 and 1998. Like other chain stores, Walmart tends to hire local employees for low-skilled jobs with low wages and minimal benefits. This may increase employees’ reliance on public assistance programs, effectively transferring costs away from employers onto taxpayers. Studies examining aggregate retail wage data from states and counties, before and after the arrival of Walmart, are mixed. Some results, particularly from nonmetropolitan areas in the South and central United States, suggest lowered wages. Other studies have found no effect (e.g. Pennsylvania) or an increase in wages (e,g, Maryland). A 2004 paper by Goetz and Swaminathan suggested that U.S. counties with Walmart stores suffered increased poverty compared with counties without Wal-Marts. It is difficult to distinguish the effects of opening a Walmart from other factors that occur in the same time and place, some of which may be related to the decision to open a store. Known as endogeneity bias, this makes it difficult to determine whether Walmart chooses to establish itself in communities with greater poverty and joblessness, or creates more poverty and joblessness. Studies of socioeconomic well-being, civic participation, and community welfare suggest that large non-locally owned businesses tend to be centralized and vertically integrated, rely on remote sources and support services, and move money, expertise and power away from local communities. Large externally-oriented businesses tend to be associated with lower local standards of living, greater inequality, and less social and civic participation. In contrast, locally oriented businesses are associated with higher rates of church membership, community engagement, civic improvement and recreation. They may also be associated with higher rates of home-ownership and expenditures on health and public schools. The presence of local entrepreneurs with resources and motivation to invest in local communities may be key to addressing community problems. This research is not specific to Walmart, but to large businesses in general. In broader economic terms, the Economic Policy Institute estimated that between 2001 and 2006 Wal-Mart's