infection which required extra measures, depending on the suspected route of transmission. Additional precautions are not needed for blood-borne infections, unless there are complicating factors. Conditions demanding additional precautions were prion diseases (e.g., Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease), diseases with air-borne transmission (e.g., tuberculosis), diseases with droplet transmission (e.g., mumps, rubella, influenza, pertussis) and transmission by direct or indirect contact with dried skin (e.g., colonisation with MRSA) or contaminated surfaces or any combination of the above. Adverse effects As of 2010 research around stigma and discrimination in health-related settings has implicated universal precautions as a means by which health care workers discriminate against patients. Particularly the employment of universal precautions when working with people with HIV and/or hepatitis C has been demonstrated to be inconsistent and implicated with feelings of stigmatization reported by those populations. Health-cased social research in 2004 revealed that by not applying universal precautions universally, as is the purpose, health professionals are instead making judgements based on an individual's health status. It is speculated that this differential approach to care stems from stigma towards HIV and hepatitis C, rooted largely in fears and misconceptions around transmission and assumptions about patient lifestyle and risk. See also Barrier nursing Body substance isolation Viral hemorrhagic fever Hepatitis B Footnotes External links Recommendations for Prevention of HIV Transmission in Health-Care Settings Medical hygiene