can spread between per year. It primarily spreads through flight or by transportation of ash bark containing products such as firewood or nursery stock, which allows it to reach new areas and create satellite populations outside of the main infestation. Other factors can limit spread. Winter temperatures of approximately limit range expansion., and overwintering emerald ash borer survive down to average temperatures of because of antifreeze chemicals in the body and insulation provided by tree bark. Larvae can also survive high heat up to . Conversely, much like ashes grown in the nursery trade, the population of emerald ash borer in North America is believed to have originated from a single group of insects from central China and also exhibits low genetic diversity. North American predators and parasitoids can occasionally cause high emerald ash borer mortality, but generally offer only limited control. Mortality from native woodpeckers is variable. Parasitism by parasitoids such as Atanycolus cappaerti can be high, but overall such control is generally low. The United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service published a rule on December 14, 2020—to take effect one month later, January 14, 2021—ending all EAB quarantine activities in the United States due to ineffectiveness so far. Other means will be used instead, especially biological controls (see §Biological control below). Environmental and economic impacts Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash. Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at