to be systems of coordinated and controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex networks of technical relations and boundary-spanning exchanges. But in modern societies, formal organizational structures arise in highly institutional contexts. Organizations are driven to incorporate the practices and procedures defined by prevailing rationalized concepts of organizational work and institutionalized in society. Organizations that do so increase their legitimacy and their survival prospects, independent of the immediate efficacy of the acquired practices and procedures. There can develop a tension between on the one hand, the institutionalized products, services, techniques, policies, and programs that function as myths (and may be ceremonially adopted), and efficiency criteria on the other hand. To maintain ceremonial conformity, organizations that reflect institutional rules tend to buffer their formal structures from the uncertainties of the technical activities by developing a loose coupling between their formal structures and actual work activities. - (John Meyer and Brian Rowan, 1976) The Hawthorne experiments The deviation from rule-making on a higher level was documented for the first time in the Hawthorne studies (1924–1932) and called informal organization. At first this discovery was dismissed as the product of avoidable errors, until it finally had to be recognized that these unwritten laws of work of everyday life often had more influence on the fate of the enterprise than those conceived on organizational charts of the executive level. Numerous empirical studies in sociological organization research followed, ever more clearly providing evidence for this, particularly during the human relations movement. It is important to analyze informal structures within an enterprise to make use of positive innovations, but also to be able to do away with bad habits that have developed over time. Reasons for informal organization There are many different reasons for informal organization: Informal standards: personal goals and interests of workers differ from official organizational goals. Informal communication: changes of communication routes within an enterprise due to personal relations between coworkers. Informal group: certain groups of coworkers have the same interests, or (for example) the same origin. Informal leaders: due to charisma and general popularity, certain members of the organization win more influence than originally intended. Different interests and preferences of coworkers. Different status of coworkers. Difficult work requirements. Unpleasant conditions of work. Managerial organization theory often still regards informal organization as rather disturbing, but sometimes helpful. In the opinion of systems theory and cybernetics, however, formal organization fades into