methods that Levitt and Donohue recommend, the data does not show a positive correlation between abortion rates and crime rates. They are quick to point out that this does not necessarily disprove Levitt's thesis, however, and emphasize that with data this messy and incomplete, it is in all likelihood not even possible to prove or disprove Donohue and Levitt's conclusion. 2007 Reyes leaded gasoline theory A 2007 study by Jessica Reyes at Amherst College stated: "This implies that, between 1992 and 2002, the phase-out of lead from gasoline was responsible for approximately a 56% decline in violent crime. Sensitivity testing confirms the strength of these results. Results for murder are not robust if New York and the District of Columbia are included, but suggest a substantial elasticity as well. No significant effects are found for property crime. The effect of legalized abortion reported by Donohue and Levitt (2001) is largely unaffected, so that abortion accounts for a 29% decline in violent crime (elasticity 0.23), and similar declines in murder and property crime. Overall, the phase-out of lead and the legalization of abortion appear to have been responsible for significant reductions in violent crime rates." 2007 study by Kahane, Paton, and Simmons In 2007 a study by Leo H. Kahane, David Paton, Rob Simmons in Economica finds no clear, consistent relationship between abortion and crime in England and Wales. 2014 study by Buonanno, Drago, Galbiati, and Zanella In 2014 a study by Paolo Buonanno, Francesco Drago, Roberto Galbiati, and Giulio Zanella was published in Economic Policy and studies seven European nations and finds no evidence for the Donohue-Levitt hypothesis. 2014 study by Francois In 2014 a study by Abel Francois was published in the International Review of Law and Economics which provides evidence on the subject through a panel data analysis of 16 countries in western Europe for 1990-2007. It finds that abortion caused a significant decrease in crime rates. 2017 study by Gary L. Shoesmith In 2017 a study by Gary L. Shoesmith was published in Crime & Delinquency concludes that "This study shows that, if there is a significant link between crime and abortion, it is due to varying concentrations of teenage abortions across states, not unwantedness." In other words, the evidence presented by Shoesmith supports the conclusion that legalized abortion reduced crime in the 1990s as the Donohue-Levitt hypothesis indicated, but he argues this result is purely because