singular exception. Outside of London art schools in the UK include Arts University Bournemouth, Coventry School of Art and Design, University for the Creative Arts, Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art & Design, Edinburgh College of Art (part of University of Edinburgh), Glasgow School of Art, Gray's School of Art, Hereford College of Arts, Leeds College of Art, Liverpool School of Art (part of Liverpool John Moores University), Loughborough University School of Art and Design, Manchester School of Art (part of Manchester Metropolitan University), Norwich University of the Arts, Moray School of Art (University of the Highlands and Islands), The Northern School of Art and Plymouth College of Art and Design. Since the 1970s, degrees have replaced diplomas as the top-tier qualification in the field. In the case of wholly freestanding institutions, degree validation agreements in liaison with a university have long been the custom for Bachelor of Arts (Hons) level upward. There has been a general trend for all-encompassing universities to offer programs in the visual arts, and formerly independent art schools have merged with polytechnics and universities to offer such degrees. A notable exception to this is the City and Guilds of London Art School, an independent art school solely focused on fine art and related disciplines such as carving and conservation. A few art schools have taken on university status themselves, namely Arts University Bournemouth, University for the Creative Arts, University of the Arts London, and Norwich University of the Arts. While Courtauld Institute of Art, Leeds College of Art and Royal College of Art are recognised institutions - some with degree awarding powers. Most specialist institutions in the United Kingdom can trace their histories back to the nineteenth century or beyond, originating usually from government initiatives. Europe Academy of Fine Arts of Brera Academy of Fine Arts Nuremberg Berlin University of the Arts École des Beaux-Arts Hochschule für Grafik und Buchkunst Leipzig National M. K. Čiurlionis School of Art Konstfack Leeds Arts University Manchester School of Art Plymouth College of Art Royal Academy of Art, The Hague Royal Academy of Arts Slade School of Fine Art Italy In Italy there are twenty Academies of Fine Arts sustained by the state and eighteen private and public academies legally recognized. All these academies, together with all the music conservatories, institutes of musical studies and other educational institutes, converge in a specific compartment of the Italian Ministry of university