coefficients of conservatism (C-values) in the Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA) that range from depending on evaluation region. The higher the C-value, the lower tolerance the species has for disturbance and the greater the likelihood that it is growing in a presettlement natural community. In the Dakotas, for example, S. novae-angliae has a C-value of 8, meaning its populations there are found in high-quality remnant natural areas with little environmental degradation but can tolerate some periodic disturbance. In contrast, for the Atlantic coastal pine barrens of Massachusetts, New York, and Rhode Island, it has been given a C-value of 1, meaning its presence in locations of that ecoregion provides little or no confidence of a remnant habitat. Reproduction Symphyotrichum novae-angliae reproduces sexually via wind-dispersed seeds and asexually (vegetatively) via short rhizomes. The species is largely incapable of self-pollination and requires cross-pollination for seed production. The ray florets of species in the Symphyotrichum genus are exclusively female, each having a pistil but no stamen, while disk florets are androgynous, each with both male and female reproductive parts. Pollinators and food-seekers The seeds of are an important fall and winter food source for songbirds. Further, a wide variety of generalist nectar-feeding insects visit the plant, including butterflies, moths, ants, flies, and bees. It is heavily visited by long-tongued bumblebees, including the golden northern bumble bee (Bombus fervidus) and the half-black bumblebee (Bombus vagans), and less so by short-tongued species. Some bees will collect pollen in addition to nectar, such as the broad-handed leafcutter bee (Megachile latimanus) and Drury's long-horned bee (Melissodes druriellus). Pests and diseases Insects A gall midge insect, Rhopalomyia astericaulis, produces a stem gall on this species. Leaf-mining insects include beetles (Sumitrosis inaequalis, Systena hudsonias, and Microrhopala xerene) and flies (Agromyza curvipalpis, Agromyza platypera, Napomyza lateralis, and Phytomyza albiceps). A butterfly known to feed on New England aster as a caterpillar is the Gorgone checkerspot (Chlosyne gorgone). The warty leaf beetle Exema canadensis breeds on S. novae-angliae. Fungi Fungi known to affect the species include the mildews Basidiophora entospora (downy) and Erysiphe cichoracearum (powdery), and a black knot fungus Gibberidea heliopsidis. Leaf spot fungi include Discosphaerina pseudhimantia and Placosphaeria haydeni (both making black spots), as well as Ramularia asteris, R. macrospora, and Septoria atropurpurea, the latter making purple stains. Two rusts have been recorded on S. novae-angliae: the brown rust Puccinia asteris and the red rust Coleosporium asterum. Conservation , NatureServe