charge container was employed) in a cloud that mixes with atmospheric oxygen (the size of the cloud varies with the size of the munition). The cloud of fuel flows around objects and into structures. The second charge then detonates the cloud and creates a massive blast wave. The blast wave can destroy reinforced buildings, equipment and kill or injure people. The antipersonnel effect of the blast wave is more severe in foxholes and tunnels and in enclosed spaces, such as bunkers and caves. Effects A Human Rights Watch report of 1 February 2000 quotes a study made by the US Defense Intelligence Agency: According to a US Central Intelligence Agency study, "the effect of an FAE explosion within confined spaces is immense. Those near the ignition point are obliterated. Those at the fringe are likely to suffer many internal, invisible injuries, including burst eardrums and crushed inner ear organs, severe concussions, ruptured lungs and internal organs, and possibly blindness." Another Defense Intelligence Agency document speculates that, because the "shock and pressure waves cause minimal damage to brain tissue... it is possible that victims of FAEs are not rendered unconscious by the blast, but instead suffer for several seconds or minutes while they suffocate". Development German The first attempts occurred during the First World War when incendiary shells (in German 'Brandgranate') used a slow but intense burning material, such as tar impregnated tissue and gunpowder dust. These shells burned for approximately 2 minutes after the shell exploded and spread the burning elements in every direction. In World War II, the German Wehrmacht attempted to develop a vacuum bomb, under the direction of the Austrian physicist Mario Zippermayr. United States FAEs were developed by the United States for use in the Vietnam War. The CBU-55 FAE fuel-air cluster bomb was mostly developed by the US Naval Weapons Center (NWC) at China Lake, California. Current American FAE munitions include the following: BLU-73 FAE I BLU-95 (FAE-II) BLU-96 (FAE-II) CBU-72 FAE I AGM-114 Hellfire missile XM1060 grenade SMAW-NE round for rocket launcher The XM1060 40-mm grenade is a small-arms thermobaric device, which was delivered to US forces in April 2003. Since the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the US Marine Corps has introduced a thermobaric "Novel Explosive" (SMAW-NE) round for the Mk 153 SMAW rocket launcher. One team of Marines reported that they had destroyed a large one-story masonry type building with one round from