intravenous lidocaine, opioids/narcotics, anti-depressants, anti-epileptic medications and neurosurgical procedures with varying success. Higher rates of successful pain control in persons with CPSP can be achieved by treating other sequelae of stroke, such as depression and spasticity. As the age of the population increases, the diagnosis and management of CPSP will become increasingly important to improve the quality of life of an increasing number of stroke survivors. Hemiplegic shoulder pain Cause Hemiplegic shoulder pain (shoulder pain on the stroke-affected side of the body) is a common source of pain and dysfunction following stroke. The cause (etiology) of hemiplegic shoulder pain remains unclear. Possible causes may include shoulder subluxation, muscle contractures, spasticity, rotator cuff disorders or impingement, and complex regional pain syndrome. Overall, the shoulder is very mobile, and relies on muscles and ligaments to support it, therefore, if a stroke damages the neurons that control those muscles and ligaments, the joint can be affected and pain may result. Pharmacological therapies Analgesics (ibuprofen and acetaminophen) may offer some pain relief for generalized hemiplegic shoulder pain. For people with spasticity associated shoulder pain, botulinum toxin injections into the shoulder muscles has also been shown to provide significant pain relief and improve range of motion. Subacromial corticosteroid injections can be effective for people with shoulder pain related to injury/inflammation of the rotator cuff region. Non-pharmacological treatment There are several non-pharmacological interventions which are recommended for prevention and treatment of post-stroke hemiplegic shoulder pain. These include proper positioning, range of motion exercises, motor retraining, and adjuvant therapies like neuromuscular electric stimulation (NMES) (e.g. functional electric stimulation (FES)). The use of slings remains controversial. Functional electric stimulation (FES) is a NMES technique where nerves or muscles affected by stroke receive bursts of low-level electrical current. The goal of FES is to strengthen muscle contraction and improve motor control. It may be effective in reducing subluxation and the pain associated with subluxation. Different slings are available to manage shoulder subluxation. However, the use of slings remains controversial and may increase the risk of adverse effects on symmetry and balance between the left and right shoulders, and can impact peoples' body image. Shoulder subluxation Glenohumeral (or shoulder) subluxation is defined as a partial or incomplete dislocation of the shoulder joint that typically results from changes in the mechanical integrity of the joint. Subluxation is a common problem with hemiplegia, or weakness of the musculature of the upper limb.