manner, tailored to their motor abilities. High intensity repetitive task practice delivered via robot-assisted therapy is recommended to improve motor function in individuals in the inpatient, outpatient and chronic care settings. These therapies have achieved the highest level of evidential support by the American Heart Association (Class I, Level of Evidence A) for the outpatient and chronic care settings and Class IIa Level of Evidence for the inpatient setting. Electromechanical and robot-assisted arm training may improve arm function (measured using the 'arm function outcome measure') and may significantly improve activities of daily living (ADL) scores. Stem cells therapies (in research) Use of bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in the treatment of ischemic stroke The terminal differentiation of some somatic stem cells has recently been called into question after studies of transplanted haematopoietic stem cells showed the development of myoblasts, endothelium, epithelium and neuroectodermal cells, suggesting pluripotency. These findings have led to MSCs being considered for treatment of ischemic stroke, specifically in directly enhancing neuroprotection and the neurorestorative processes of neurogenesis, angiogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Possible mechanisms of neurorestoration and neuroprotection by MSCs after stroke Transdifferentiation of MSCs into excitable neuron-like cells has been shown to be possible in vitro and these cells respond to common central nervous system neurotransmitters. However, it is unlikely that this degree of transdifferentiation occurs in vivo and that <1% of injected MSCs become truly differentiated and integrate in the damaged area. This suggests that transdifferentiation of MSCs into neurons or neuron-like cells is not a major mechanism by which MSCs cause neurorestoration. Induction of neurogenesis (development of new neurons) is another possible mechanism of neurorestoration; however its correlation with functional improvement after stroke is not well established. The inducted cells likely originate from the ventricular zone, subventricular zone and choroid plexus, and migrate to the areas in their respective hemispheres which are damaged. Unlike the induction of neurogenesis, the induction of angiogenesis (development of new blood vessels) by MSCs has been associated with improvements in brain function after ischemic strokes and is linked to improved neuronal recruitment. In addition, synaptogenesis (formation of new synapses between neurons) has been shown to increase after MSC treatment; this combination of improved neurogenesis, angiogenesis and synaptogenesis may lead to a more significant functional improvement in damaged areas as a result of MSC treatment. MSC treatment also has shown to have various neuroprotective effects, including reductions in apoptosis, inflammation