kind of insecurity of success). At the same time, people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. The goal should be objectively defined and understandable for the individual. Similarly to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, a larger end goal is easier to achieve if the subject has smaller, more attainable yet still challenging goals to achieve first in order to advance over a period of time. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is trying to motivate oneself to run a marathon when s/he has not had proper training. A smaller, more attainable goal is to first motivate oneself to take the stairs instead of an elevator or to replace a stagnant activity, like watching television, with a mobile one, like spending time walking and eventually working up to a jog. Expectancy theory Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal. There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows: or M (Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they placed themselves in, which is based on the following. Hence the equation. E (Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, it's the person's assessment of how well and what kind of effort will relate to better performance. I (Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished. V (Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance." Procrastination Procrastination is the act to voluntarily postponing or delaying an intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be worse off because of that delay. While procrastination was once seen as a harmless habit, recent studies indicate otherwise. In a 1997 study conducted by Dianne Tice and William James Fellow Roy Baumeister at Case Western University, college students were given ratings on an established scale of procrastination and tracked their academic performance, stress, and health throughout the semester. While procrastinators experienced some initial benefit in the form of lower stress levels (presumably by putting off their work at first), they ultimately earned lower grades and reported higher levels of stress and illness. Procrastination can be seen as a defense mechanism.