shear forces, they are still able to carry load through diagonal tension (DT) stresses in the web. This results in a non-linear behaviour in the load carrying behaviour of these details. The ratio of the actual load to the load at which buckling occurs is known as the buckling ratio of a sheet. High buckling ratios may lead to excessive wrinkling of the sheets which may then fail through yielding of the wrinkles. Although they may buckle, thin sheets are designed to not permanently deform and return to an unbuckled state when the applied loading is removed. Repeated buckling may lead to fatigue failures. Sheets under diagonal tension are supported by stiffeners that as a result of sheet buckling carry a distributed load along their length, and may in turn result in these structural members failing under buckling. Thicker plates may only partially form a diagonal tension field and may continue to carry some of the load through shear. This is known as incomplete diagonal tension (IDT). This behavior was studied by Wagner and these beams are sometimes known as Wagner beams. Diagonal tension may also result in a pulling force on any fasteners such as rivets that are used to fasten the web to the supporting members. Fasteners and sheets must be designed to resist being pulled off their supports. Dynamic buckling If a column is loaded suddenly and then the load released, the column can sustain a much higher load than its static (slowly applied) buckling load. This can happen in a long, unsupported column used as a drop hammer. The duration of compression at the impact end is the time required for a stress wave to travel along the column to the other (free) end and back down as a relief wave. Maximum buckling occurs near the impact end at a wavelength much shorter than the length of the rod, and at a stress many times the buckling stress of a statically loaded column. The critical condition for buckling amplitude to remain less than about 25 times the effective rod straightness imperfection at the buckle wavelength is where is the impact stress, is the length of the rod, is the elastic wave speed, and is the smaller lateral dimension of a rectangular rod. Because the buckle wavelength depends only on and , this same formula holds for thin cylindrical shells of thickness . Theory Energy method Often