Macumba, also spelled Makumba (), is a term that has been used to describe various religions of the African diaspora found in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. It is sometimes considered by non-practitioners to be a form of witchcraft or black magic. The Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries brought millions of West and Central Africans to Brazil. There, traditional West and Central African religions continued to be practiced, often syncretising with each other and with both indigenous American and European influences. Among the Afro-Brazilian religious traditions that emerged were Candomblé, Umbanda, and Quimbanda. During the 19th century, the term Makumba was used generically in reference to all of these religions. By the late 20th century, the term Makumba was often reserved for those religious traditions whose focus was on dealing with "low" spirits, who were sometimes termed exus or devils. These practices differed from Candomblé and Umbanda, which focused on interactions with the orixá spirits. Etymology Macumba (from Kimbundu: ma'kôba) is a percussion instrument of African origin, similar to the reco-reco. Within the context of East/East-Central Africa, for instance, Philpot (1936) presents a timeline for tribal leadership and succession while simultaneously connecting this to the religious beliefs and practices associated with Makumba. Furthermore, Spier (2020:11-12) notes among the Aushi that "consultants were adamant in their disavowal of his claims, as they insisted that Makumba was never a deity and certainly never had a physical presence as the one that Philpot (1936) presents. Instead, they argue that Makumba is a spirit that is associated with earthquakes." Definitions The anthropologist Jim Wafer noted that the term Macumba was often used for "those Brazilian religions that specialize in dealings with 'low' spirits, who may be called 'devils' or exus." He noted that it was often explicitly associated with the "low spiritism" practiced around Rio de Janeiro. The term Macumba is sometimes also used as a colloquial term for all Afro-Brazilian religions. In this, Stafania Capone noted, macumba was used in much the same way as the term calundu, which had been used in the 18th century to describe Afro-Brazilian traditions. Writing in the 1990s, the anthropologist Robert A. Voeks noted that those who took an extremely negative view of Candomblé still viewed it as being "impregnated with devil worship and macumba." History Brazilian Macumba designates all Bantu religious practices, mainly in the Brazilian state of Bahia in the nineteenth