during the Depression. In 1935, Texas Congressman Wright Patman introduced legislation that would have levied a federal tax on chain stores. If adopted, this legislation likely would have ended A&P. While this legislation did not move in Congress, in 1936 Patman sponsored the Robinson–Patman Act that outlawed charging different prices to similar customers; this law passed. Patman then reintroduced his first bill. A&P retained a lobbyist and dropped its opposition to unionizing activities of the politically powerful American Federation of Labor. George and John Hartford also took the unusual step of publishing an open letter pointing out that the legislation would increase food prices. The tide of public opinion then turned against the bill, which was defeated. Converting to supermarkets In 1930, the first supermarket opened in California. On the East Coast, Michael J. Cullen, a then-former A&P employee, opened his first King Kullen supermarket in Jamaica, Queens. Two years later, Big Bear opened in Elizabeth, New Jersey, and quickly equaled the sales of 100 A&Ps. In 1933, A&P's sales dropped 19%, to $820 million, because of the competition. After considerable debate, the Hartford brothers decided to open 100 supermarkets, the first of which was in Braddock, Pennsylvania. The new stores proved to be very successful; in 1938, the company operated 1,100 supermarkets. The chain continued to build supermarkets and slowly phase out smaller stores except in dense urban areas; in 1950, A&P operated 4,000 supermarkets and 500 smaller stores. Sales reached $3.2 billion with an after-tax profit of $32 million. A&P's success attracted the attention of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's anti-trust chief, Thurman Arnold, who was urged by Representative Wright Patman to investigate A&P. In 1942, A&P and their senior executives—including the Hartford brothers—were criminally charged for restraint of trade in Dallas federal court. In 1944, prosecutors withdrew the complaint on grounds that the Dallas federal judge thought the case was weak. The same day, charges were filed in Danville, Illinois, and were assigned to Federal Judge Walter Lindley. The prosecution complained that A&P had an unfair competitive advantage because their vertical integration including manufacturing; warehousing, and retailing allowed them to charge lower prices. Prosecutors also complained that A&P refused to buy from food retailers who sold only through brokers or refused to give A&P advertising allowances. The judges contended that if unchecked, A&P would become a monopoly. A&P said their grocery-store share was only about 15%, much less