and the International Maritime Organization (IMO), on waste management and marine pollution, respectively. The agreement on the Madrid Protocol constituted the culmination of years of development of environmental standards and practices, which were synthesised and articulated into a single comprehensive agreement. The Protocol set out new rules on environmental protection, including new restrictions to human activity in Antarctica and a framework to incorporate new issues through the elaboration of additional annexes. Through the Protocol, the protection of the Antarctic environment was established as the third pillar of the Antarctic Treaty, together with peaceful use and international scientific cooperation. The issue of minerals in the Protocol Article 7 of the Madrid Protocol expressly prohibits any activity related to the exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research. In principle, this prohibition of exploration and exploitation of mineral resources is valid indefinitely, although Article 25 of the Protocol establishes the possibility that any Consultative Party may request a review of the application of its content, once 50 years have elapsed since the entry into force of the Protocol (in the year 2048). This provision applies by extension to Article 7. With particular reference to mineral resources, Article 25, in its first paragraph, establishes that, before proceeding with an amendment to Article 7, a series of circumstances and preconditions must be met. It is for this reason that some authors maintain that the Protocol establishes a 50-year moratorium on the exploration and exploitation of Antarctic minerals, although, in fact, a moratorium would imply the automatic fall of the provisions of Article 7, and this is not exactly the case raised by Article 25. Appendix 1: Countries that have signed the Madrid Protocol *The Protocol entered into force on January 14, 1998. Campaign The treaty followed a lengthy campaign by Greenpeace, including the construction of an Antarctic base from 1987 to 1991. Greenpeace claims the protocol as a victory. Honours Madrid Dome in Aristotle Mountains, Antarctica is named in connection with the Protocol. References External links Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty Text of the protocol, PDF format. Ratifications Environmental treaties Antarctica agreements 1998 in Antarctica Treaties concluded in 1991 Treaties entered into force in 1998 Environment of Antarctica 1998 in the environment Treaties of Argentina Treaties of Australia Treaties of Belgium Treaties of Brazil Treaties of Bulgaria Treaties of Chile Treaties of the People's Republic