percent among Slovaks, 2 percent among Croats, 1 percent among Macedonians from Skopje, 3 percent among Macedonian Albanians, 1 percent among Serbs from Belgrade, 3 percent among Bulgarians from Sofia, 1 percent among Austrians and Swiss, 3 percent among Romanians from Ploiești, 1 percent among Turks. The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of Romani people; creating a higher frequency of the haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations from the region. Full genome analysis A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Roma people are characterized by a common South Asian origin and a complex admixture of West Eurasian lineages, mostly a composition of Balkan, Middle East, and Caucasus-derived ancestries. The autosomal genetic data links the proto-Roma to groups in Northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples with low West Eurasian ancestry), as well as, Dravidian groups with high Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI) ancestry such as the Irula and groups in Eastern India. The paternal lineages of Roma are most common in Southern India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among early Romani people during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent. In addition, they also theorized of a possible low-caste origin for the Proto-Roma due to their low levels of West Eurasian ancestry. Possible migration route The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire. The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that