of license rights. Vocal opposition from civil rights and environmental organisations, farmers and landowners in the Karoo lead to a government-placed moratorium on hydraulic fracturing in April 2011. Royal Dutch Shell has abandoned its application in April 2018. https://www.afriforum.co.za/shell-retreating-aggressive-fracking-plans-south-africa/</reg> After assembling a task team to evaluate the potential costs and benefits of hydraulic fracking in South Africa, Collins Chabane, minister in the president’s office, announced an end to the moratorium in September 2012. Amid much debate, draft regulations for hydraulic fracturing in South Africa were published in October 2013 by South Africa’s cabinet. Mineral Resources Minister Susan Shabangu proposed a two-year extension of the moratorium in February 2014 for designated areas, not affecting applications submitted prior to the initial moratorium of 2011 and has also banned fracking until the release of final regulations before governmental elections on May 7, 2014. A news report on March 23, 2014, reported that the final regulations for hydraulic fracturing in South Africa would be released in the middle of April 2014. In March 2014, state legislation was passed that allowed for the state to claim 100% of mining ventures, which drastically changed the 20% claim that was initially envisioned in previous negotiations. Such state control has led to concerns about the potential for business improprieties similar to those committed by Enron in the United States. Regardless of the controlling party, the exploration process will last for approximately 2 years. If results that come from the exploration process promise worthwhile benefits, environmental impacts will be assessed and commercial fracking will occur, although it could take a decade to produce results. Hydraulic fracturing process In order to access the natural gas trapped by shale, vertical drilling is used to puncture deep boreholes to access deeply buried shale deposits. As the casings are cemented in place, horizontal drilling starts to access the production zone. Economic impacts One of the major arguments in favor of hydraulic fracturing in South Africa is that it could bring much needed economic benefits to the country. A national unemployment rate of around 25%, with the Karoo representing many of those unemployed, offers a large incentive for allowing hydraulic fracturing in the region. Unfortunately the majority of the unemployed are also unskilled and are unlikely to receive any jobs needed for the technical drilling operations 90% of electricity in South Africa is generated using coal, which many see as unsustainable, and even coal-generated