recorded after the incident. Perhaps the most well documented injury associated with antisocial behavior is injury to the pre-frontal cortex. Damage to this part of the brain early in childhood correlates to an antisocial behavior that extends through the life-course. Brain Activity The right hemisphere is responsible for spatial awareness and orientation. Deficits on this side of the brain can lead to problems in facial and expression recognition. These impairments can do more than just interfere with early attachment and bonding. They can lead to adverse parenting due to the child's inappropriate responses to parental moods or expressions. In one experiment, 868 seven-year-old boys in Pennsylvania were divided into groups: one group on the life-course persistent offender path, one on the adolescent limited path, and one control group. A Continuous Performance Task test (CPT) was used to test frontal lobe function. Larger neurocognitive impairments were found in the life-course persistent group (LCP) than in the control group. Additionally, positron emission tomography (PET), near-infrared spectroscopy, and magnetoencephalography imaging studies have shown more right hemisphere activation during the CPT, so these results are consistent with right hemisphere dysfunction in subjects displaying antisocial behavior. Reduced glucose metabolism in the pre-frontal cortex has been recorded in murderers compared with normal controls. Also, several other studies cited reduced blood flow in the same area. Recent studies indicate that abnormalities associated with antisocial behavior are localized in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal regions. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex abnormality may predispose to "response perseveration" leading to a life-course-persistent antisocial behavior despite repeated punishment. Several other abnormalities of the brain have been found with relation to antisocial behavior such as reduced functioning of the amygdala, abnormal glucose metabolism in the temporal lobe, smaller volumes of the hippocampus, and lesser function of the anterior cingulate. Spatial Capabilities In the previous Pennsylvania study, the life-course persistent (LCP) group showed significant impairments on spatial tests compared with the control group. No significant differences were shown between the adolescent limited (AL) group and the control group with respect to spatial IQ. Verbal Capabilities Children exhibiting antisocial behavior early in life, many of whom are the same individuals who continue their trajectory into adulthood, often have difficulties with oral communication. Within the 868 Pennsylvania boys, the LCP group had significantly lower verbal IQ (and regular IQ) scores than the adolescent limited group, and no significant differences were shown between the adolescent limited (AL)