River, seem have become independent of the Agua Dulce chiefdom by the start of the 16th century, and founded at least one chiefdom of their own. The French sources attest that they were part of Utina's confederacy in the 1560s, though Worth notes that the level of control Utina exercised over them is arguable. Francisco Pareja noted that the Acuera spoke their own dialect of the Timucua language (Acuera), distinct from the Agua Dulce dialect. The Acuera did not experience demographic decline nearly as quickly as the Agua Dulce or Tocoy chiefdoms, perhaps partially because of their remote location in the Florida interior and their less frequent contact with the Europeans. In the early mission period they may have had a population between 2,500-4,500. As such, Acuera represents one of the simpler, localized chiefdoms that proved sustainable well after more integrated societies such as Utina's confederacy had fallen. Spanish records from the late 16th century indicate that Acuera village was ruled by a cacica (female chief). The chiefdom may have been relatively unintegrated. Some villages in the Acuera Province were missionized years before the main town, and some village chiefs rendered their obedience to the Spanish before the Cacica of Acuera village had done so. According to Worth, the Tucururu dialect, which Francisco Pareja noted was similar to but distinct from Acuera, may have been spoken in the Acuera Province, perhaps around the village of Tucuru. As such, the villages of the province may have been largely independent and only loosely associated with the main town. Alternately, the missionized villages, all located in the eastern part of the province, may have represented another small chiefdom or chiefdoms situated between Acuera and Agua Dulce. The Spanish established Mission San Blas de Avino in the town of Avino by 1612, but it was abandoned not long after. By 1640, the population had decreased to the point that Acuera was joined with Agua Dulce and Mayaca into the Ibiniuti province. By 1655 there were two further missions, Santa Lucia de Acuera in the main village and San Luis de Eloquale in Eloquale. Both of these were abandoned by 1680, and like Agua Dulce, the Acuera Province was merged into the larger Timucua Province. Any survivors may have relocated closer to St. Augustine, perhaps to the Puebla de Timucua, and lost their independent identity. Notes References Hann, John H. (1996). A History of the