Thermal analysis, Heat. More on continuum mechanics This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior. Furthermore, fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied. Density This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like crystals, in contrast to bulk density of grainy or porous solids. Aerometer liquids Dasymeter gases Gas collecting tube gases Hydrometer liquids Pycnometer liquids Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA) solids For the ranges of density-values see: Orders of magnitude (density) Hardness of a solid Durometer Shape and surface of a solid Holographic interferometer Laser produced speckle pattern analysed. Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA) Tribometer Deformation of condensed matter Strain gauge all below Elasticity of a solid (elastic moduli) Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA), using the impulse excitation technique: A small mechanical impulse causes the sample to vibrate. The vibration depends on elastic properties, density, geometry, and inner structures (lattice or fissures). Plasticity of a solid Cam plastometer Plastometer Tensile strength, ductility, or malleability of a solid Universal testing machine Granularity of a solid or of a suspension Grindometer Viscosity of a fluid Rheometer Viscometer Optical activity Polarimeter Surface tension of liquids Tensiometer Imaging technology Tomograph, device and method for non-destructive analysis of multiple measurements done on a geometric object, for producing 2- or 3-dimensional images, representing the inner structure of that geometric object. Wind tunnel This section and the following sections include instruments from the wide field of :Category:Materials science, materials science. More on electric properties of condensed matter, gas Permittivity, relative static permittivity, (dielectric constant), or electric susceptibility Capacitor Such measurements also allow to access values of molecular dipoles. Magnetic susceptibility or magnetization Gouy balance For other methods see the section in the article about magnetic susceptibility. See also :Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter Substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy Phase conversions like changes of aggregate state, chemical reactions or nuclear reactions transmuting substances, from reactants into products, or diffusion through membranes have an overall energy balance. Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature, molar energy balances define the notion of a substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy, which gives the energetic information about whether the process is possible or not - in a closed system.