distance or lack of intimacy between the speakers (as implied, e.g., in the French vous). On the contrary, it is often noted that the respectful form contains the radical for "heart" (, xīn); although this is actually for phonetic reasons, the implication is that the addressee is loved and cherished by the speaker. Most southern dialects, however, do not make this distinction in speech at all. Cantonese and Shanghainese speakers learn to write both forms in school but pronounce them identically: the Cantonese as nei5 and the Shanghainese as nóng. Formality is still respected, but their languages like Japanese and Vietnamese retain the earlier Chinese tradition of employing epithets or honorifics instead of using any pronouns at all when showing formal respect. Japonic Japanese Under heavy Chinese influence, traditional Japanese culture eschewed the use of common pronouns in formal speech; similarly, the Chinese first-person singular (, chin) was arrogated to the personal use of the emperor. The formality of Japanese culture was such that its original pronouns have largely ceased to be used at all. Some linguists therefore argue that Japanese lacks any pronouns whatsoever, but although it is a larger and more complex group of words than most languages employ Japanese pronouns do exist, having developed out of the most common epithets used to express different relationships and relative degrees of social status. As in Korean, polite language encompasses not only these specific pronouns but also suffixes and vocabulary as well. Most commonly, (, kimi, orig. "prince", "lord") is used informally as the second-person singular and (, anata, lit. "dear one") is the most common polite equivalent, but is also commonly used by women towards an intimate as a term of endearment. The pronoun (, kisama) is illustrative of the complexity that can be involved, though, in that its literal meaning is quite flattering lit. "dear and honorable sir" but its ironic use has made it a strong insult in modern Japanese. Similarly, (, omae) lit. "(one who is) before (me)" was traditionally a respectful pronoun used toward aristocrats and religious figureheads, but today is considered very informal and impolite, yet also commonly used by husbands towards their wives in an endearing manner. Austro-Asiatic Vietnamese Under heavy Chinese influence, Vietnamese culture has eschewed the use of common pronouns in formal speech; similarly, the Chinese first-person singular (Vietnamese: trẫm) was arrogated to the personal use of the emperor. In modern