The Cinchona Missions (1942-1945) were a series of expeditions led by the United States to find natural sources of quinine in South America during World War II. Background Bark of species from the genus Cinchona produces the alkaloid quinine, a potent anti-malarial treatment. Although originally native to South America, cinchona plantations were established in India, Ceylon, and the Dutch East Indies during the 19th century. By 1913, 95 percent of quinine production was controlled by the Dutch through large plantations on Java. With the outbreak of World War II, a supply of quinine was essential for successful military operations. In 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies cut off the supply of quinine to the allies. Recognizing the need for a new source of quinine, a program was established by the United States Board of Economic Warfare under the operation of the Defense Supplies Corporation (DSC). Professor William C. Steere was brought on as assistant director. The objective was to find supplies of cinchona bark in the Andes for military use. It had three goals: to control all sites with commercial cinchona for long-term development; to develop plantations that could compete with established cinchona monopolies to ensure emergency provisions; and to train people in the producing countries to take over the industry at the end of US involvement. Six countries signed an agreement with the DSC; Colombia, Peru, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Bolivia. Wild populations of cinchona were also to be exploited. At its peak, as many as 30 American botanists were involved with the program. Exploratory missions Colombia The first party left for Colombia in October 1942. It consisted of two foresters, two botanists, a chemist, and a lawyer. This initial group included Steere, Francis Raymond Fosberg, and Leslie Holdridge. At first, two field parties were organized. Each team had a botanist to identify cinchona species, as well as a forester to calculate the volume of bark and logistics of harvest. They began their search in the high altitude rainforests of the Cordillera Oriental and the Rio Magdalena, making an inventory of all available species. Once cleared for harvest, bark from an area was gathered with native labor. It was transported on the backs of people or mules to rivers and airstrips. Eventually, it would arrive at one of the field laboratories located in Bogotá, Colombia, Quito, Ecuador, Lima, Peru, or La Paz, Bolivia. Dry bark