power, imbuing the Saudi regime with Islamic legitimacy. Islamic legitimacy is seen as central to Saudi authority, given its position as the guardian of the two holy sites in Islam: Makkah and Madinah. To compound its Sunni prestige, the Saudi state became "the de facto bastion of anti-Shi’ism dogma within the Islamic world," treating Shi'ism as heresy. After 1744, the Wahhabis "mounted a jihad which involved demolishing tombs, shrines, and even grave markers, and cleansing Islam of Shiaism since its excessive reverence for Muhammad's family was deemed to be verging on idolatry". Furthermore, in 1802, Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud sacked the Shi'ite holy site of Karbala, which saw the death of approximately 5000 Shi'ites. In 1913, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa in the Eastern Province - home to many Shi'ites - and formally annexed the region into the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa. Ibn Saud allowed Shi'ites to have their own separate judicial courts for religious and family law cases. Some of Ibn Saud's followers pressured him to impose harsher measures against the Shi'ites. Ibn Saud initially did not act on this, and instead prioritised gaining new territory to expand the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa. In 1925, however, following the capture of Hejaz, Ibn Saud continued the demolition of Shi'ite tombs. Even so, after securing his political rule, Ibn Saud opted for a quiet policy of partial coexistence, allowing some Shi'ites to run their own mosques. Nonetheless, anti-Shi'ite rhetoric prevailed into state institutions. In 1927, Wahhabi ulamas issued a fatwa (ruling) calling upon Shi'ites to convert to Sunni Islam. Across the Kingdom, many Shi'ite institutions were closed down, including mosques and community centres, whilst the commemoration of Ashura was prohibited. Publishing and distributing Shi'ite religious texts was further outlawed, alongside the Shi'ite call to prayer. Two events later brought tensions to the forefront: the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser's Pan-Arabism and the Iranian Revolution of 1979, which established the Shi'ite Islamic Republic of Iran. Impact of Pan-Arabism The rise of Nasser deeply concerned Islamic monarchies in the Middle East. Nasser called for the creation of a Pan-Arab state, advocating republicanism, and condemning monarchist regimes like the House of Saud. Indeed, Nasser stated that he would "ensure that Faisal be Saudi Arabia’s last king". To counter Pan-Arabism and offset Nasser's influence, Saudi Arabia leaned towards Pan-Islamism. Pan-Islamism sought to "legitimise the monarchy’s continued existence and entwine it ever more