this includes either manipulating the environment that are favourable for growth, reproduction and development of insects. Processes that could decrease the insect pest problem include unrestricted use of chemicals (insecticides) and imbalanced use of fertilizers. Infestation can start around two weeks after seedling emergence. The first symptom of damage is the presence of irregular shaped pinholes or shot holes caused by early-instar larval feeding in the whorl. This can later convert to elongated lesions on the leaves. The infested plants appear ragged and deteriorated. The older larvae leave the whorl, break through and bore into the stem and reach the growing point. It is there that the larvae cut and cause the characteristic deadheart symptom. Therefore, the damage due to the pest includes leaf feeding and subsequent destruction, extensive tunnels in stems and maize cobs, disruption in the nutrient flow, and the resultant death of the plant due to the puncture of the growing point. Host defences Studies have shown that some host plants to C. partellus have developed defences and therefore resistance to this pest. For example, some maize landraces have been shown to respond to early herbivory (e.g. egg deposition) by C. partellus by producing herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) which would attract parasitoids of C. partellus. It is assumed that this is an opportunity for the exploitation of this trait and can be used as management of this pest. However, this particular defensive technique requires further study for it have very little to no information available regarding other factors including host plant defences on larval preference and development, C. partellus oviposition behaviour after HIPV production, etc. Also, host plants may have created a defence where leaf feeding by C. partellus may have induced secondary defence metabolites making plants unpalatable. Therefore, this could represent another opportunity for the management of C. partellus. Pest management and biocontrol methods There are a few methods that could be used in order to reduce the pest population of C. partellus. Methods and processes include but are not limited to the following: Detection methods: Infestations by C. partellus can be detected by walking through crops looking for the characteristic physical appearance of a deteriorated host plant by the presence of deadhearts. Samples of infested stems can be cut open to find caterpillars and pupae, however it is a good idea to rear these until adulthood to be certain that they are C. partellus pests.