Gene cassettes are mobile genetic units each carrying only one gene which can be readily transferred into and between larger, stable genetic backbones called integrons that are responsible for moving the cassettes. The integron is also responsible for expression of the genes in cassettes. This exchange of genes between different bacteria enables rapid emergence of resistance under selection pressure of antibiotics. Hall's recent work has identified large antibiotic resistance gene clusters, including genomic resistance islands in Salmonella, Klebsiella pneumoniae and in Acinetobacter baumanni and examined their evolution. Multiple antibiotic resistance in Acinetobacter baumanni is now being tracked using whole genome analysis. Spread of resistance between individuals is an increased risk among hospitalized and immunosuppressed patients with Hall's work identifying the role of commensal bacteria, including E. coli in the human colon in the spread of genes. Resistance genes can also reach the human food chain through subtherapeutic antibiotic use as growth promotants in animal production, with Hall contributing to JETACAR (Joint Expert Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance), which, in 2000, developed Australian Government policy on antibiotic use in agriculture. The risks of the rise of "superbugs" from the gene exchange processes described by Hall are recognized internationally as a threat to human health (WHO report on antibiotic resistance, May 2014). Honours and awards 2003 Australian Society for Microbiology BioMerieux Identifying Resistance Award 2005 American Society for Microbiology Sanofi-Aventis Award 2005 Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science 2006 Rubbo Orator, Australian Society for Microbiology 2010 Fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology 2012 Macfarlane Burnet Medal and Lecture, Australian Academy of Science 2014 Order of Australia Medal 2014 National Health and Medical Research Council Hall of Fame References External links Nla.gov Eoas.info Csiropedia.csiro.au Theage.com.au Who.int Sydney.edu.au Health.gov.au Ecosmagazine.com 1945 births Living people Scientists from Sydney University of Sydney alumni University of Sydney faculty Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Australian women scientists Australian microbiologists Women microbiologists Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science Fellows of the American Academy of Microbiology