by the magnetic field, the Van Allen belts, and the interaction between the magnetosphere and the solar wind. Mathematical geophysics – development and applications of mathematical methods and techniques for the solution of geophysical problems. Mineral physics – science of materials that compose the interior of planets, particularly the Earth. Near-surface geophysics – the use of geophysical methods to investigate small-scale features in the shallow (tens of meters) subsurface. Paleomagnetism – measurement of the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field over the geologic past. Seismology – study of the structure and composition of the Earth through seismic waves, and of surface deformations during earthquakes and seismic hazards. Tectonophysics – study of the physical processes that cause and result from plate tectonics. History of geophysics History of geophysics History of geomagnetism Timeline of the development of tectonophysics Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis General geophysics concepts Gravity Gravity of Earth Bouguer anomaly Isostatic gravity anomaly Geoid Geopotential Gravity anomaly Undulation of the geoid Heat flow Geothermal gradient Internal heating Electricity Atmospheric electricity Atmospheric electricity Lightning Sprite (lightning) Electricity in Earth Electrical resistivity tomography Induced polarization Seismoelectrical method Spectral induced polarisation Spontaneous potential Telluric current Electromagnetic waves Alfvén wave Dawn chorus (electromagnetic) Hiss (electromagnetic) Magnetotellurics Seismo-electromagnetics Transient electromagnetics Whistler (radio) Fluid dynamics Geophysical fluid dynamics Isostasy Post-glacial rebound Mantle convection Geodynamo Magnetism Geomagnetism subfields Environmental magnetism Magnetostratigraphy Paleomagnetism Rock magnetism Earth's magnetic field Description Geomagnetic pole Magnetic declination Magnetic inclination North Magnetic Pole South Magnetic Pole Sources Geodynamo Magnetic anomaly Magnetosphere Short-term changes Secular variation Geomagnetic secular variation Geomagnetic jerk Long term behavior Apparent polar wander Geomagnetic excursion Geomagnetic pole Geomagnetic reversal Geomagnetic secular variation Polar wander True polar wander Magnetostratigraphy Archaeomagnetic dating Polarity chron Magnetostratigraphy Superchron (currently redirected to Geomagnetic reversal#Moyero Reversed Superchron) Rock magnetism Rock magnetism Magnetic mineralogy Natural remanent magnetization Saturation isothermal remanence Thermoremanent magnetization Viscous remanent magnetization Tectonic applications Plate reconstruction Magnetic survey Aeromagnetic survey Geophysical survey Magnetic survey (archaeology) Magnetometer Radioactivity Age of the Earth Geochronology Radiometric dating Mineral physics Mineral physics Creep Elasticity Melting Rheology Thermal expansion Viscosity Vibration Seismology Earthquake – a motion that causes seismic waves. Aftershock – follows larger earthquake. Blind thrust – along a thrust fault that does not show on the Earth's surface. Foreshock – precedes larger earthquake. Harmonic tremor – long-duration, with distinct frequencies, associated with a volcanic eruption. Interplate – at the boundary between two tectonic plates. Intraplate – in the interior of