inflections, are close to 100% productive across the class of verbs, are semantically compositional, and do not form new lexemes with their bases, but which do not express obligatory categories. These fall under the heading of “quasi-inflection.” The quasi-inflectional morphemes include elements with modal meanings such as the desiderative suffix -kṵtun and the debiditive -ʔḛː, directionals such as kiː- ‘roundtrip’, teː- ‘in passing’, and -teːɬa ‘ambulative’, deictics (-či ‘proximal’ and -ča ‘distal’), -pala ‘repetitive’, and the totalitative -ʔo̰ː, which indicates either that an action has been carried through to completion or that the subject or objects have been completely affected. Valency-increasing derivation Upper Necaxa has a wealth of valency-increasing morphemes, both causatives and applicatives, which can be combined more or less freely with verb roots and with each other to form multivalent verbs with up to five objects. There are two causatives, the less productive being ma̰ʔa- ‘stimulus’, which adds a non-agentive or inanimate causer of an involuntary change of state. The second, more productive, causative is the circumfix maː- -niː. This morpheme is a canonical causative that adds an agentive causer to an event and is compatible with almost any verb in the language. The suffixal portion of the circumfix is either -niː or takes the form of a long harmonic vowel agreeing in quality with the vowel of the preceding syllable. Only dynamic verbs require the suffix, stative verbs forming their causatives with maː- alone. In addition to the causatives, there are four applicatives, each associated with a particular semantic role or roles. The most general of these is the benefactive -ni which adds semantic roles such as beneficiary, recipient, addressee, and affectee. The instrumental prefix liː- adds either an instrument or a motive to a clause, and is used to mark the subordination of a following finite clause in expressions of motive: The third prefix, the comitative ta̰ː- adds a co-actor to the clause, while the fourth, la̰ʔ- 'allative', adds a goal, usually but not always human. The allative is found only with verbs of motion historically or synchronically derived from the verbs a̰n 'go' and min ‘come’. Derivation using bodyparts A well-known characteristic of Totonacan languages in general is their prolific use of prefixal forms of bodyparts and other part-expressions to form verbs specifying a target or “active” zone for the action designated by the verb. The part prefixes can be combined either with a (free