behavior. Leaders are high on initiating structure to clarify their own roles and their subordinates’ roles in obtaining a goal. Kerr and colleagues noticed many studies had found significant moderators that played a part in the relationship between initiating structure leader behavior and subordinate outcomes. For example, when a task was ambiguous, the relationship between leader initiating structure and subordinate satisfaction was stronger than if the task was clear. These findings made it apparent that there were variables that affected the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes, making the relationship stronger or weaker. In 1973, Kerr was the first to coin substitutes for leadership as elements in the work setting that lessened leader effectiveness on subordinate outcomes. Further publications led to Kerr and Jermier's 1978 paper, which unveiled substitutes for leadership theory. This paper presented two types of elements in the job environment: substitutes and neutralizers. These elements were proposed to serve as moderators in the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes. The theory originally classified substitutes as characteristics of the subordinate, characteristics of the task, and characteristics of the organization. Howell, Dorfman, & Kerr proposed alteration to the theory in terms of subordinate classification. They argued that moderators should be grouped based on their effect on the criterion. The original theory had already proposed moderators that act as substitutes and moderators that act as neutralizers. Howell and colleagues added enhancers to these. Substitutes for leadership theory was a heavily researched area until the late 1980s when transformational leadership became the focus of the majority of leadership research. Definitions Substitutes for leadership theory Substitutes for leadership theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Substitutes Substitutes are variables that make leadership unnecessary for subordinates and reduce the extent to which subordinates rely on their leader Examples of substitutes Characteristics of the subordinate Subordinate ability Subordinate's professional orientation Characteristics of the task Unambiguous and routine task (when all subordinates are performing menial labor, there is little role leadership can play; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001) Task that provides its own feedback as to how well the task is being done Task that is intrinsically satisfying Characteristics of the organization Cohesive work groups (a tight-knit group of employees has less need for a leader; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001) Organizational formulation (clear job goals that are written down, performance