Substitutes for leadership theory is a leadership theory first developed by Steven Kerr and John M. Jermier and published in Organizational Behavior and Human Performance in December 1978. The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). It has received criticism for shortcomings due to perceived methodological issues. Empirical research has produced mixed results as to its ability to predict subordinate outcomes. Origins Over the years, researchers have developed many leadership theories. Prior to the 1970s, trait leadership theory and path-goal theory were the two heavily researched theories. (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Proponents of trait leadership theory held that the ability to lead is a characteristic some people innately have and others do not. The effort was put forth to uncover which characteristics and abilities leaders had that separated them from non-leaders. Leadership style was another angle researchers took. Proponents of this approach did not believe the ability to lead was innate, rather it was a set of behaviors anyone could learn (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). In the mid-1970s, a great deal of research was dedicated to the contingency model and path-goal theory. The contingency model stated that various leadership styles would be more or less effective depending on the situation. (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001; Fiedler, 1965). Path-goal theory proposed that subordinates would be satisfied with their leader if they perceived that their leader's behavior would bring them future satisfaction. Subordinates would be motivated by their leader if they perceived that completing work tasks would bring them satisfaction, and if the leader provided proper coaching, support, rewards, and guidance. Frustrations with not being able to find significant results with anyone's theory resulted in the development of reexaminations and new approaches, including questioning which situations necessitated a leader figure and which did not (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Steven Kerr and Anne Harlan was one of the researchers publicly expressing his frustrations with current leadership theories. In the 1970s, Kerr was at Ohio State University actively involved in leadership research. Kerr was studying existing proposed subordinate constructs such as organizational independence and proposed leadership constructs such as consideration and initiating structure (put forth by the Ohio State Leadership Studies). Subordinates that are organizational independents do not feel tied to one company and are internally motivated instead of motivated by the characteristics of the organization, such as leader