effect of substitutes for leadership on the relationship between leader behaviors and subordinate outcomes. They found evidence supporting the theory taking into account both leader behaviors and the effect of substitutes accounted for more of the variance in subordinate outcomes than taking into account leader behaviors alone. Applications Autonomous work groups Bass (1990) suggested that autonomous work groups can substitute for formal leadership. In this scenario, employees are divided into groups that are responsible for managing their own day-to-day work (i.e. collective control over the pace, distribution of tasks, organization of breaks, recruitment, and training; Gulowsen, 1972). A quasi-experiment found that implementing autonomous workgroups of 8 to 12 shop-floor employees in a manufacturing setting positively affected both the intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction of employees while obviating some supervisory positions. Self-management Self-management is defined by Thoresen and Mahoney (1974) as occurring when an individual behaves in a way he would not normally behave, and there are no external forces dictating that the person maintains that behavior. Self-management requires self-observation (e.g., keeping a log of what one has discussed with others on the phone), specification of goals (e.g., being responsible for setting one's own schedule and priorities), cueing strategies (e.g., putting a checkout board by the exit to remind an employee to let their secretary know where they are going and when they expect to return), rehearsal (e.g., recording one's presentation to clients and making corrections as needed), self-evaluation (e.g., using a chart to keep track of work quality and quantity), and self-reinforcement (accomplished by building intrinsic rewards for the performance of tasks; Bass, 1990; Manz & Sims 1980). These strategies can be understood as being substitutes for leadership. Instead of requiring that a supervisor monitor a subordinate's progress on a work task, a subordinate can self-manage by utilizing one of the strategies listed above. This makes the supervisor's guidance unnecessary for the subordinate. Criticisms and methodological problems with research Common-source bias Dionne and colleagues argued that significant effects of substitutes found in prior studies may be a statistical artifact due to common-source bias, or bias occurring when independent and dependent variables are collected from the same person or group of people. In a study sampling 49 organizations, Dionne and colleagues controlled for the effect of common-source bias and found no moderating or mediating effects of substitutes on the relationship between leader behavior and group effectiveness. In a study by Podsakoff