theory, and believed that one reason for this may be that the quality of the scale developed by Kerr and Jermier to measure the substitutes constructs may be to blame. In response to this, they designed their own 74-item measure of substitutes for leadership. To test their scale, they administered it to 372 business students. Their analyses of the psychometric properties of the revised measure revealed their scale to be superior to Kerr and Jermier's scale, as evidenced by better dimensionality and reliability of the revised scale. Consequences Kerr and Jermier proposed that substitute variables should render leader behaviors unable to predict subordinate outcomes. Researchers that have tested this characteristic of substitutes have found mixed results. A study involving hospital personnel found that tasks that gave feedback regarding performance were negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Routine repetitive work tasks were correlated with organizational commitment. Intrinsically satisfying work, organizational formulation, and cohesive workgroups were substitutes that were significantly correlated with both job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, they found little evidence that substitutes prevented or replaced a leader's effect on subordinate job satisfaction or organizational commitment. The only substitute that served as a replacement was the organizational formulation, which replaced leader behavior's predictive power in explaining subordinate job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Another study looked at 1,235 employees working for 265 leaders in a variety of job settings. Among their findings were that intrinsically satisfying tasks were positively related to subordinate satisfaction, indifference to rewards was negatively related to organizational commitment, and the organizational formulation was negatively related to subordinate perceptions of role ambiguity. The researchers in this study concluded that substitutes for leadership were useful in predicting subordinate outcomes, but leader behaviors and substitutes should always be studied together because together they explained about a third of the total variance insubordinate outcomes in their sample. A more recent study conducted by Dionne and colleagues collected data from 940 subordinates. Unsatisfied with the fact that prior studies had tested substitutes, enhancers, and neutralizers as moderators, they tested the effect of substitutes as mediators as well as moderators. Testing a variety of different substitutes and outcomes, the researchers found only very weak evidence that substitutes make a difference and concluded that leader behaviors are the only important variable in predicting employee outcomes. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer conducted a meta-analysis in which they took the results of 22 studies that examined the main