appraisals that are written down; Kerr and Jermier, 1987) Self-managed work teams (employees rely on each other, not their leader) Enhancers Enhancers are variables that serve to strengthen leaders influence on subordinate outcomes (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001 Examples of enhancers Characteristics of the subordinate Subordinates having experience (those more experienced will be able to translate even the most ambiguous instructions into results Characteristics of the task Task is non-routine Characteristics of the organization Having group norms that encourage cooperation with leaders (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001) Leader having the ability to reward subordinates Neutralizers Neutralizers are variables which serve to weaken, or block leader influence on subordinate outcomes (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001 Examples of neutralizers Characteristics of the subordinate Subordinates are indifferent when it comes to rewards Characteristics of the organization Whether or not subordinates are rewarded is not the leader's decision Kerr & Jermier never specified an example of a task characteristic that acts as a neutralizer. Scales used to measure Kerr and Jermier The original scale to measure the effects of various substitutes was developed by Kerr and Jermier. They assessed leadership substitutes via a questionnaire that contained thirteen subscales with a total of 55 items. The items were on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost always untrue or completely untrue), to 5 (almost always true or almost completely true). The subscales included were: Ability, experience, training, and knowledge Professional orientation Indifference towards organizational rewards Unambiguous, routine, and methodically invariant tasks Task-provided feedback concerning accomplishment Intrinsically satisfying tasks Organizational formalization Organizational inflexibility Advisory and staff functions Close-knit, cohesive, interdependent work groups Organizational rewards not within the leader's control Spatial distance between superior and subordinates Subordinate need for independence Kerr and Jermier tested nine of these subscales in a lab setting and found that they were independent and had adequate internal reliabilities. They claim that the subscales produce easily interpretable data that describe the extent to which substitutes for leadership are present or absent in a given work situation. They went on to test their subscales in a field setting using police officers and concluded that the subscales met acceptable standards of reliability, and can be used to assess the validity of the substitutes for leadership construct in future studies. Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, and Williams Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, and Williams noted that studies testing the substitutes for leadership model had not been fully supportive of the