hydrogenated oils are not generally recognized as safe, and since 2018 categorizes them as food additives, not food. Dietary recommendations Many health organizations recommend limiting or replacing dietary intake of trans fats and saturated fats, in favor of unsaturated fats: History Nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, and patented the process in 1902. Normann's hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, a practice kept secret to avoid consumer distaste. During the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a large-scale plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons, Limited. It took only two years until the hardened fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in late 1909. The initial year's production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes. In 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the United States rights to the Normann patent. In 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco, composed largely of partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil. Further success came from the marketing technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the United States as a source of protein; large quantities of soybean oil were a by-product. At the same time, there was not enough butterfat available for consumers. Margarine manufacturers found that hydrogenated fats worked better than the previously used combination of animal and liquid vegetable fats. Margarine made from hydrogenated soybean oil and vegetable shortenings such as Crisco and Spry, sold in England, began to replace butter and lard in baking bread, pies, cookies, and cakes by 1920. Production of hydrogenated fats increased steadily until the 1960s, as processed vegetable fats replaced animal fats in the United States and other Western countries. At first, the argument was a financial one due to lower costs; advocates also said that the hydrogenated fats of margarine were healthier than the saturated fats of butter. The food industry has moved away from partially hydrogenated fats in response to the health concerns about trans fats, labeling requirements, and removal of trans fats from permitted food additives. They have been replaced