the strain. Vaccination Several vaccine types are currently available for treatment of C. pseudotuberculosis infections, including bacterin vaccines, toxoid vaccines, combined vaccines, live vaccines, and DNA vaccines. Part of the C. pseudotuberculosis lifecycle being intracellular adds an additional element of difficulty to vaccine treatment, as a vaccine must be able to induce a cell-mediated response rather than a solely humoral antibody response to eliminate the bacteria from the body. A vaccine using a recombinant form of the phospholipase D exotoxin is now in widespread use, and has been shown to decrease the occurrence of lung lesions and amount of tissue damage observed upon infection. Though vaccination will not prevent infection in a flock, it does minimize the severity of infection, so can have positive implications in reducing carcass condemnations for producers. This exotoxin is commonly included in combination vaccines that also protect against clostridial diseases. Good management practices that include the implementation of persistent vaccination protocols with the combination vaccine Glanvac 6 (Zoetis) have demonstrated to be quite effective, and have led to a decrease of caseous lymphadenitis in Australia. Vaccines should be administered as directed by the manufacturer for highest efficacy, ensuring that the vaccines are given to the appropriate animals at the correct ages, and are boosted at the recommended intervals. Husbandry With antimicrobial therapy and vaccination protocols being somewhat limited, proper management practices are highly recommended for controlling caseous lymphadenitis. Good husbandry practices can decrease the occurrence and spread of caseous lymphadenitis among small ruminants, thus improving animal health and minimizing economic impacts on the producers. C. pseudotuberculosis is commonly spread through superficial wounds inflicted during shearing, castration, tail docking, and ear tagging, so disinfection of equipment between animals and keeping wound sites clean can help limit spread. The disease can also spread through superficial wounds caused during animal fighting, so care should be taken to minimize aggression among animals. C. pseudotuberculosis can persist on fomites such as straw bedding, hay, wood, and feces for weeks, and in the soil for up to 8 months, making proper disinfection of facilities and pasture management essential to limit spread of disease. In addition, all animals should be closely monitored for any lesions or signs of disease to remove infected animals from the flock or herd as early as possible. Infected animals should be quarantined, and in some cases, culling of infected animals may be indicated. References Sheep Horse diseases