same way, although processing oily skins like seal and polar bear sometimes required the additional step of degreasing the hide by dragging it across gravel or, today, washing it with soap. If the hide was soiled with blood, rubbing with snow or soaking in cold water could remove the stain. Sometimes the fur would need to be removed so the hide could be used for things like boot soles. This was usually done with an , or if the hair had been loosened by putrefaction or soaking in water, a blunt scraping tool could also suffice. The hide would be repeatedly scraped, stretched, chewed, rubbed, wrung or folded up, soaked in liquid, and even stamped on to soften it further for sewing. The softening process was continued until the women judged the skin was ready – up to twelve distinct stages might be required. Badly processed hides would stiffen or rot, so correct preparation of hides was essential to ensure the quality of the clothing. Sewing of garments When the hide was ready, the process of creating each piece could begin. The first step was measuring, a detailed process given that each garment was tailored for the wearer. No standardized sewing pattern was used, although older garments were sometimes used as models for new ones. Traditionally, measurement was done by eye and by hand alone, although some seamstresses now make bespoke paper patterns following a hand and eye measurement process. The skins were then marked for cutting, traditionally by biting or pinching, or with an edged tool, although in modern times ink pens may be used. The direction of the fur flow is taken into account when marking the outline of the pieces. Most garments were sewn with fur flowing from top to bottom, but strips used for trim had a horizontal flow for added strength. Once marked, the pieces of each garment would be cut out using the , taking care not to stretch the skin or damage the fur. Adjustments were made to the pattern during the cutting process as need dictated. The marking and cutting process for a single could take an experienced seamstress an entire hour. Up to forty pieces might be cut out for the most complex garments like the outer parka, although most used closer to ten. Once the seamstress was satisfied that each piece was the appropriate size and shape, the pieces were