largely symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army and as a last resort could be called upon to resolve conflicts. Impact Demographic France's losses during World War II totaled 600,000 people (1.44% of the population), including 210,000 military deaths from all causes, and 390,000 civilian deaths due to military activity and crimes against humanity. In addition they suffered 390,000 wounded military. Jewish life and society at large had to adjust to a reduced population of French Jews. Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps by the Vichy regime, where about 72,500 were killed. Economic France emerged from World War II severely weakened economically. It had been in a period of economic stagnation even when the war broke out. By 1945 national income, in real terms, was little more than half what it had been in 1929. To aid economic recovery, the Chairman of the French Provisional Government, Charles de Gaulle, established the General Planning Commission (Le Commissariat général du Plan) on 3 January 1946. The Commission implemented the Modernization and Re-equipment Plan, commonly known as the Monnet Plan after Jean Monnet, the chief advocate and the first head of the commission. To help finance imports of capital equipment and raw materials needed for France's recovery and modernization program, the country negotiated loans from the U.S. and the World Bank in 1946. Also, from 1948 to 1952, France received just under $3 billion in Marshall Plan aid. Yergin and Stanislaw argue France's post-war Modernization and Re-equipment Plan set it on the road to an "economic miracle" in the 1950s. Judicial Many leaders and collaborators of the Vichy regime were arrested, and some were imprisoned or sentenced to death. Marshall Petain's death sentence was commuted to life due to his status as a World War I hero. Pierre Laval was tried, and executed by firing squad in October 1945. Some former collaborators escaped immediate penalties or even continued conventional lives, such as Maurice Papon, who was arrested and convicted in 1998 of crimes against humanity for his role in the deportation of Jews from Bordeaux. German war criminal Klaus Barbie, known as the "butcher of Lyon", was extradited from Bolivia in 1983. He was put on trial and sentenced in 1987 to life imprisonment in Lyon. Historiographical For decades prior to the 1970s modern period, French historiography was