wolf. This indicates that the gray wolf is better adapted for cracking bone than other canids. In comparison to extant North American gray wolves, Beringian wolves included many more individuals with moderately to heavily worn teeth and with a significantly greater number of broken teeth. The frequencies of fracture in wolves ranged from a minimum of 2% found in the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf (Canis lupus irremotus) up to a maximum of 11% found in Beringian wolves. The distribution of fractures across the tooth row also differs, with Beringian wolves having much higher frequencies of fracture for incisors, carnassials, and molars. A similar pattern was observed in spotted hyenas, suggesting that increased incisor and carnassial fracture reflects habitual bone consumption because bones are gnawed with the incisors and then cracked with the carnassials and molars. The risk of tooth fracture is also higher when taking and consuming large prey. Competitors In addition to the Beringian wolf, other Beringian carnivores included the Eurasian cave lion (Panthera spelaea), scimitar-toothed cat (Homotherium serum), giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), and the omnivorous brown bear (Ursus arctos). Beringian wolves would have faced competition for the carcasses of large herbivores from the formidable giant short-faced bear, a scavenger. Additionally, humans had reached the Bluefish Caves in the Yukon Territory by 24,000YBP, with cutmarks being found there on specimens of Yukon horse, steppe bison, caribou (Rangifer tarandus), wapiti (Cervus canadensis), and Dall sheep (Ovis dalli). A 1993 study proposed that the higher frequency of tooth breakage among Pleistocene carnivores compared with living carnivores was not the result of hunting larger game, something that might be assumed from the larger size of the former. When there is low prey availability, the competition between carnivores increases, causing them to eat faster and consume more bone, leading to tooth breakage. Compared to modern wolves, the high frequency of tooth fracture in Beringian wolves indicates higher carcass consumption due to higher carnivore density and increased competition. This proposal was challenged in 2019, when a survey of modern wolf behavior over the past 30 years showed that when there was less prey available, the rates of tooth fracture more than doubled. This suggests that large Pleistocene carnivores experienced more periods of limited food availability when compared with their modern counterparts. Range The remains of Beringian wolves have been found in Alaska and as far eastward as the Yukon in Canada. Specimens that