New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word logos as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected (verb) in favor of (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving the living word as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung. Despite the conventional translation as "word", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term lexis (, ) was used. However, both logos and lexis derive from the same verb (), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak". Ancient Greek philosophy Heraclitus The writing of Heraclitus () was the first place where the word logos was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure. What logos means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal logos was clearly suggested by Heraclitus. Aristotle's rhetorical logos Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave logos a different technical definition in the Rhetoric, using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are pathos (, ), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and ethos (, ), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, logos relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe: Logos, pathos, and ethos can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to