may be due to their appearance being effeminate or homosexual so as to attract other males. Experts do not believe that premature sexual experiences play a significant role in later sexual orientation. Research by Jane Gilgun, Judith Becker and John Hunter states that while many perpetrators may have experienced sexual abuse of their own, most sexual assault victims will not go on to become adolescent perpetrators. However, it must be noted that gay and bisexual men can be victims of rape with "13.2% of bisexual men and 11.6% of gay men reporting a history of rape in adulthood". During armed conflict Rape of males during wartime has been reported as prevalent in some parts of the world, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, which recently suffered civil war. Across Africa, men who are raped often face social stigmatization and being ridiculed for being "weak" and failing to prevent the rape. They may also be accused of homosexuality (which is illegal in many countries of the region). For example, when some male refugees from the Congo sought treatment in Uganda, they were prosecuted for homosexuality, The Economist reported in 2012. In northern Uganda, in recent years there have been ongoing attacks by rebel groups against the government forces. During these conflicts, civilian men have often been attacked, kidnapped, raped and forced to fight for the rebel groups. Victims of rape often face serious physical, emotional, and psychological trauma as a result of their experience. Effects Physical effects Sexual abuse results in severe emotional and often physical trauma. Among sexual assault victims over 18, 31.5% of females and 16.1% of males said that they incurred non-genital injuries from the assault. Male victims received more ancillary injuries and were more likely to be threatened with a weapon by the perpetrator. The symptoms and injuries most frequently noted are tension headaches, ulcers, nausea, colitis, abrasions to the throat, black eyes and broken bones. The study by Stermac and colleagues (2004) noted that 45% of male victims who went to a hospital sexual assault centre had some type of physical injury (25% soft tissue injury, 20% lacerations). The data from hospital emergency rooms show that male rape victims are more likely to have non-genital injuries than females, and that they are more likely to neglect seeking medical attention if the injuries are not significant. Hodge and Canter (1998) report that homosexual male victims are