after centuries, made Parsi theatre not just the role model for the first Indian talkies, as numerous Paris theatre producers moved to cinema, but also gave birth to a theatre tradition, that continued even after Parsi theatre died out as the talkies made their first appearance. Panned by Hindi litterateurs, Bhartendu and Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Parsi theatre through its veritable presence, however provoked the elite theatre of refinement as a clear reaction. Modern Hindi theatre 1868 and after Early development of modern Hindi theatre can be traced to the work of Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850–1885), a theatre actor, director, manager, and playwright based in Varanasi (Banaras), who is also the father of modern Hindi literature as in his short life of 35 years, he edited two magazines, Kavi vachan Sudha and Harishchandra chandrika, wrote numerous volumes of verse in Braj bhasa, essays and eighteen plays, thus laying the foundation of modern Hindi prose style. Well-versed in folk theatre styles and oral literary traditions of the region, he was influenced by the Bengal Renaissance, however his principle influence was the ancient Sanskrit Drama, many of which he translated and established a stream of dramaturgy which has run parallel to development of the Western drama, though he even translated a Shakespeare's play. Rooted in the rising tide of Indian nationalism, he is most noted for his politically charged plays like, Andher nagari (City of Darkness) written in 1881, a clear satire on the British Raj, as it implied that a society which tolerates a lawless state is doomed to fail. Eventually Bharatendu became director of Hindi Natak Samaj (Hindu National Theatre) in Banaras. After Bhartendu whose productions were largely funded by himself or at times by Maharaja of Kashi, Hindi theatre went through a phase of struggle, due to lack of sponsors, impresarios or efficient theatre managers, thus there was hardly any professional theatre for many decades, discouraging writers to take to playwrighting, even works of important playwrights of this period, Jaishankar Prasad and Upendranath Ashk were mostly read, yet hardly staged. Prevalent conservatism didn't allow the female actors to take to stage and unlike Marathi theatre of Mumbai or Bengali theatre of Calcutta, Hindi theatre remained a struggling force, despite the presence of a large audience, which went to the extent of the entertainment-driven Parsi theatre companies. Only a handful of amateur theatre groups presented their works at improvised or makeshift stages,