readily adapt when faced with a new environment may be beneficial to certain populations of species that can quickly reproduce, species with long generational gaps may not benefit from such an ability. If a species with a longer generational gap does not appropriately adapt to the anticipated environment, then the reproductive fitness of the offspring of that species will be diminished. There has been critical discussion of mainstream evolutionary theory by Edward J Steele, Robyn A Lindley and colleagues, Fred Hoyle and N. Chandra Wickramasinghe, Yongsheng Liu Denis Noble, John Mattick and others that the logical inconsistencies as well as Lamarckian Inheritance effects involving direct DNA modifications, as well as the just described indirect, viz. epigenetic, transmiss'ions, challenge conventional thinking in evolutionary biology and adjacent fields. See also Contribution of epigenetic modifications to evolution Överkalix study Dutch famine of 1944–45#Legacy Transgenerational stress inheritance Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders References Epigenetics Extended evolutionary synthesis