(adnate), and usually notched (sinuate). The spore print is cinnamon or rusty brown. The spores are elliptic, smooth-walled, nonamyloid (not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent), and measure 6.6–8 by 3.7–4.4 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, and four-spored, with dimensions of 16–25 by 5–7 μm. Fruit bodies have an odour described variously as resembling garlic, radish, lemon, onion, or skunk, and taste like radish. Edibility Although some sources report P. squarrosa as edible, the mushroom has caused several cases of poisoning. The afflicted individuals had consumed alcohol with the mushroom, then experienced vomiting and diarrhoea about ten hours later. The toxic effect may be due to the combination of eating the mushrooms and taking alcohol, although the extended time delay between consumption and symptoms suggests the mechanism of toxicity is different than the antabuse-effect experienced from Coprinopsis atramentaria with alcohol. Similar species Pholiota squarrosa is similar in appearance to species in the genus Armillaria, but the latter produces white spore prints. Another similar mushroom is Pholiota squarrosoides, which can be distinguished microscopically by its smaller spores, and macroscopically by the stickiness of the cap between the scales. P. squarrosoides also lacks the odor of P. squarrosa, and has flesh that is white, not yellow. Leucopholiota decorosa can also be misidentified with P. squarrosa; it has white, adnexed gills with finely scalloped edges, but it can be distinguished most reliably by its white, nonamyloid spores. Other similar species include Pholiota aurivella, P. populnea, and P. terrestris. Ecology, habitat and distribution Pholiota squarrosa is thought to be a white rot fungus, which use cellulose as a carbon source, and have the ability to degrade the lignin (present in wood) to carbon dioxide to access the cellulose molecule. The fungus can attack a wide variety of deciduous host trees, including sugar maple, red maple, yellow birch, paper birch, American beech, and white ash. It can also attack conifers, like spruce. The fungus is a secondary parasite, in that it attacks trees that have already been weakened from prior injury or infection by bacteria or other fungi. It also functions as a saprobe, and can obtain nutrients by breaking down organic matter in dead wood. P. squarrosa is found in North America and Europe. The North American distribution extends north to Canada, and south to Mexico, where its appearance is restricted to coniferous forests. In the Netherlands, P. squarrosa is one