information reflects that minorities in the United States have lower life expectancies and encounter a larger number of health conditions than their white counterparts, the health of black people has not always been documented. Accurate numbers showing the number of African Americans infected, disabled, or died—or succumbed to it—aren't available; records remain scarce, since so few of those victims were able to get to institutional healthcare providers or agencies. David R. Williams and Chiquita Collins write that, although racial taxonomies are socially constructed and arbitrary, race is still one of the major bases of division in American life. Throughout US history racial disparities in health have been pervasive. In a 2001 paper, Williams and Collins also argued that, although it is no longer being legally enforced, racial segregation is still one of the primary causes of racial disparities in health because it determines socioeconomic status by limiting access to education and employment opportunities. Clayton and Byrd write that there have been two periods of health reform specifically addressing the correction of race-based health disparities. The first period (1865–1872) was linked to Freedmen's Bureau legislation and the second (1965–1975) was a part of the Civil Rights Movement. Both had dramatic and positive effects on black health status and outcome, but were discontinued. Even though African-American health status and outcome is slowly improving, black health has generally stagnated or deteriorated compared to whites since 1980. The Tuskegee study was another prime example of health disparities among African Americans. The study showed lack of medical treatment and discrimination among blacks. African Americans find it difficult to participant in clinical trials due to lack of understanding and knowledge received by researchers. In 1932, the Tuskegee study was involved with 600 black men, 399 with syphilis and 201 with no disease. Researchers explained to the men they were being treated for "bad blood," a term used in the study to describe several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. The men were told by researchers and health professionals that they would be participating in a study to cure their current illnesses. The men in the study later found they were not being treated for the purpose they agreed upon. This study resulted in a class action lawsuit due to lack of evidence, no consent, misleading information, and medical neglect. As a result, by July 1972 when the study ended, over 100 participants had died, 40 spouses