text: For instance, in the original hockey stick (ending 1980) the last 30-40 years of data points slightly downwards.

evidence_id: Field hockey:298

article: Field hockey

evidence: Each player carries a "stick" that normally measures between 80–95 cm (31–38"); shorter or longer sticks are available.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:18

evidence: Since the direct temperature record is more accurate than the proxies (indeed, it is needed to calibrate them) it is used when available: i.e., from 1850 onwards.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:2

evidence: The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:35

evidence: The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions, 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer, to support its conclusion that "Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely the highest in at least the past 1,300 years".

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:55

evidence: The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman, to describe the pattern this showed, envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an Ice hockey stick's "shaft", followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the "blade".


text: Europe and Asia  emit most of the soot from burning coal, wood, dung, and diesel in open  fires or without particulate filters in stoves, chimneys, smokestacks,  and exhaust pipes.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Air pollution:1019

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Air pollution

evidence: Most of these fine particles are a by-product of... burning... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, trash...

evidence_id: Air pollution:38

article: Air pollution

evidence: It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood.

evidence_id: Diesel exhaust:77

article: Diesel exhaust

evidence: Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected directly into the filter.

evidence_id: Diesel particulate filter:0

article: Diesel particulate filter

evidence: A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.

article: Soot

evidence: They include soot from coal burning, internal-combustion engines, power-plant boilers, hog-fuel boilers, ship boilers, central steam-heat boilers, waste incineration, local field burning, house fires, forest fires, fireplaces, and furnaces.


text: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

evidence_id: Clean Air Act (United States):1

article: Clean Air Act (United States)

evidence: § 7401) is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level.

evidence_id: Clean Air Act (United States):146

article: Clean Air Act (United States)

evidence: The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution control.

evidence_id: Clean Air Act (United States):152

article: Clean Air Act (United States)

evidence: The Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from both stationary (industrial) sources and mobile sources.

evidence_id: Clean Air Act (United States):171

article: Clean Air Act (United States)

evidence: In 1997 EPA tightened the NAAQS regarding permissible levels of the ground-level ozone that make up smog and the fine airborne particulate matter that makes up soot.

evidence_id: Clean Air Act (United States):7

article: Clean Air Act (United States)

evidence: The first federal legislation to actually pertain to "controlling" air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963.


text: "NASA satellite data from the years 2000 through 2011 show the Earth's atmosphere is allowing far more heat to be released into space than alarmist computer models have predicted, reports a new study in the peer-reviewed science journal Remote Sensing.

claim_label: REFUTES

article: Cassini–Huygens

evidence: Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) The VIMS was a remote sensing instrument that captured images using visible and infrared light to learn more about the composition of moon surfaces, the rings, and the atmospheres of Saturn and Titan.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:196

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:213

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: This premature announcement came from a preliminary news release about a study which had not yet been peer reviewed.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:233

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In a NASA report published in January 2013, Hansen and Sato noted "the 5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing."

evidence_id: Global warming:100

article: Global warming

evidence: Another line of evidence for the warming not being due to the Sun is how temperature changes differ at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere.


text: The study indicates far less future global warming will occur than United Nations computer models have predicted, and supports prior studies indicating increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide trap far less heat than alarmists have claimed.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:13

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The authors conclude that "anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases have led to unprecedented regional warmth."

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:231

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A 2007 study by David Douglass and coworkers, concluded that the 22 most commonly used global climate models used by the IPCC were unable to accurately predict accelerated warming in the troposphere although they did match actual surface warming, concluding "projections of future climate based on these models should be viewed with much caution".

evidence_id: Global warming:67

article: Global warming

evidence: The 10th Emissions Gap Report issued by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that if emissions continue to increase at the same rate as they have in 2010–2020, global temperatures would rise by as much as 4° by 2100.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:68

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: Confidence in these near-term projections is strengthened because of the agreement between past model projections and actual observed temperature increases.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:81

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: The feedback due to water vapor is a major factor in determining how much warming would be expected to occur with increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and all existing computer models assume positive feedback — that is, that as the climate warms, the amount of water vapour held in the atmosphere will increase, leading to further warming.


text: A subsequent study by Dessler (2011) found that Spencer's paper was not a test of climate sensitivity or feedbacks, and his assumptions do not match empirical observational data.

evidence_id: Evolution as fact and theory:80

article: Evolution as fact and theory

evidence: Phylogenetic theory is used to test the independent distributions of traits and their various forms to provide explanations of observed patterns in relation to their evolutionary history and biology.

evidence_id: Regression analysis:130

article: Regression analysis

evidence: A properly conducted regression analysis will include an assessment of how well the assumed form is matched by the observed data, but it can only do so within the range of values of the independent variables actually available.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:94

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: Andrew Dessler published a paper which found errors in Lindzen and Choi 2011, and concluded that the observations it had presented "are not in fundamental disagreement with mainstream climate models, nor do they provide evidence that clouds are causing climate change.

evidence_id: Roy Spencer (scientist):19

article: Roy Spencer (scientist)

evidence: In 2008, Spencer and William Braswell published a paper in the Journal of Climate which suggests that natural variations in how clouds form could actually be causing temperature changes, rather than the other way around, and could also lead to overestimates of how sensitive the Earth's climate is to greenhouse gas emissions.

article: Science

evidence: Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.


text: Hansen's 1988 results are evidence that the actual climate sensitivity is about 3°C for a doubling of atmospheric CO2.

claim_label: DISPUTED

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:13

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Without feedbacks the radiative forcing of approximately 3.7 W/m2, due to doubling CO 2 from the pre-industrial 280 ppm, would eventually result in roughly 1 °C global warming.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:18

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) refers to the equilibrium change in global mean near-surface air temperature that would result from a sustained doubling of the atmospheric equivalent CO 2 concentration (ΔT2×).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:53

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO 2 was doubled.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:58

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

evidence_id: James Hansen:99

article: James Hansen

evidence: An alternate scenario would keep the warming to below this if climate sensitivity were below 3 °C for doubled CO 2.


text: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

evidence_id: James Hansen:171

article: James Hansen

evidence: Hansen was invited by Rafe Pomerance to testify before the United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on June 23, 1988.

evidence_id: James Hansen:172

article: James Hansen

evidence: Hansen testified that "Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and observed warming...It is already happening now" and "The greenhouse effect has been detected and it is changing our climate now...We already reached the point where the greenhouse effect is important."

evidence_id: James Hansen:173

article: James Hansen

evidence: Hansen said that NASA was 99% confident that the warming was caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and not a random fluctuation.

evidence_id: James Hansen:48

article: James Hansen

evidence: During a senate meeting on June 23, 1988, Hansen reported that he was ninety-nine percent certain the earth was warmer then than it had ever been measured to be, there was a clear cause and effect relationship with the greenhouse effect and lastly that due to global warming, the likelihood of freak weather was steadily increasing.

evidence_id: James Hansen:639

article: James Hansen

evidence: ...Dr. James E. Hansen of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration told a Congressional committee that it was 99 percent certain that the warming trend was not a natural variation but was caused by a buildup of carbon dioxide and other artificial gases in the atmosphere.


text: At that time, Hansen also produced a model of the future behavior of the globe’s temperature, which he had turned into a video movie that was heavily shopped in Congress.

evidence_id: James Hansen:117

article: James Hansen

evidence: The first climate prediction computed from a general circulation model that was published by Hansen was in 1988, the same year as his well-known Senate testimony.

evidence_id: James Hansen:118

article: James Hansen

evidence: The second generation of the GISS model was used to estimate the change in mean surface temperature based on a variety of scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions.

evidence_id: James Hansen:119

article: James Hansen

evidence: Hansen concluded that global warming would be evident within the next few decades, and that it would result in temperatures at least as high as during the Eemian.

evidence_id: James Hansen:134

article: James Hansen

evidence: Hansen compared the corrected troposphere temperatures with the results of the published GISS model, and concluded that the model is in good agreement with the observations, noting that the satellite temperature data had been the last holdout of global warming denialists, and that the correction of the data would result in a change from discussing whether global warming is occurring to what is the rate of global warming, and what should be done about it.

article: James Hansen


text: That model predicted that global temperature between 1988 and 1997 would rise by 0.45°C (Figure 1).

evidence_id: General circulation model:88

article: General circulation model

evidence: Over the same time period, the "likely" range (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement) for these scenarios was for a global mean temperature increase of 1.1 to 6.4 °C.

evidence_id: General circulation model:90

article: General circulation model

evidence: In a scenario where global emissions start to decrease by 2010 and then declined at a sustained rate of 3% per year, the likely global average temperature increase was predicted to be 1.7 °C above pre-industrial levels by 2050, rising to around 2 °C by 2100.

evidence_id: General circulation model:91

article: General circulation model

evidence: In a projection designed to simulate a future where no efforts are made to reduce global emissions, the likely rise in global average temperature was predicted to be 5.5 °C by 2100.

evidence_id: General circulation model:94

article: General circulation model

evidence: Under the same emissions scenario but with a different model, the predicted median warming was 4.1 °C.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.


text: But his results are evidence that the actual climate sensitivity is about 3°C for a doubling of atmospheric CO2.

evidence_id: Global warming:318

article: Global warming

evidence: Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO 2 to be around 5-6 °C.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:86

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: Lindzen has stated that due to the non-linear effects of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, CO2 levels are now around 30% higher than pre-industrial levels but temperatures have responded by about 75% 0.6 °C (1.08 °F) of the expected value for a doubling of CO2.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:87

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: The IPCC (2007) estimates that the expected rise in temperature due to a doubling of CO2 to be about 3 °C (5.4 °F), ± 1.5°.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:88

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: Lindzen has given estimates of the Earth's climate sensitivity to be 0.5 °C based on ERBE data.

evidence_id: Svante Arrhenius:82

article: Svante Arrhenius

evidence: On the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth's surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°."


text: Had he used the currently accepted value of approximately 3°C warming for a doubling of atmospheric CO2, Hansen would have correctly projected the ensuing global warming.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:14

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

evidence_id: James Hansen:120

article: James Hansen

evidence: He argued that if the temperature rose 0.4 °C above the 1950–1980 mean for a few years, it would be the "smoking gun" pointing to human-caused global warming.

evidence_id: James Hansen:246

article: James Hansen

evidence: Decades ago, they correctly predicted how much Earth's temperature would rise due to increasing atmospheric CO2.

evidence_id: James Hansen:83

article: James Hansen

evidence: In 2000, Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years, arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via carbon dioxide (CO 2) largely balanced each other out, and that the 0.74±0.18 °C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide, such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons.

evidence_id: James Hansen:99

article: James Hansen

evidence: An alternate scenario would keep the warming to below this if climate sensitivity were below 3 °C for doubled CO 2.


text: Global brightening is caused by changes in cloud cover, reflective aerosols and absorbing aerosols.

evidence_id: Black carbon:152

article: Black carbon

evidence: In addition to black carbon, fossil fuel and biofuel soot contain aerosols and particulate matter that cool the planet by reflecting the sun's radiation away from the Earth.

evidence_id: Black carbon:28

article: Black carbon

evidence: A purely scattering aerosol will reflect energy that would normally be absorbed by the earth-atmosphere system back to space and leads to a cooling effect.

evidence_id: Global dimming:8

article: Global dimming

evidence: Aerosols and other particulates absorb solar energy and reflect sunlight back into space.

evidence_id: Global dimming:85

article: Global dimming

evidence: The particles reflect and absorb sunlight, less sun rays reach Earth surface layers, thus resulting in cooler water and land surface temperatures, and also less cloud formation, subsequently dampening the development of hurricanes.

evidence_id: Global warming:82

article: Global warming

evidence: Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols – from volcanoes, plankton, and human-made pollutants – reflect incoming sunlight, cooling the climate.


text: While changes in cloud cover & aerosols lead to more sunlight hitting the surface, this can be compensated by the cooling effect on the atmosphere due to fewer clouds trapping less warmth and fewer absorbing aerosols absorbing less sunlight.

evidence_id: Climate system:107

article: Climate system

evidence: Some primarily scatter sunlight and thereby cool the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere.

article: Global dimming

evidence_id: Global warming:116

article: Global warming

evidence: If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

evidence_id: Global warming:77

article: Global warming

evidence: For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight.

article: Particulates

evidence: For instance, if absorbing aerosols are present in a layer aloft in the atmosphere, they can heat surrounding air which inhibits the condensation of water vapour, resulting in less cloud formation.


text: satellites confirmed measurements from ground stations show a considerable, and naturally-occurring, global brightening from 1983-2001 (Pinker et al., 2005).

evidence_id: Global dimming:115

article: Global dimming

evidence: There was solar brightening beyond 2000 at numerous stations in Europe, the United States, and Korea.

evidence_id: Global dimming:39

article: Global dimming

evidence: Wild et al., using measurements over land, report brightening since 1990, and Pinker et al.

evidence_id: Global warming:1466

article: Global warming

evidence: "A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based on the Sunshine Duration".

evidence_id: Global warming:83

article: Global warming

evidence: From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed, a phenomenon popularly known as global dimming, typically attributed to aerosols from biofuel and fossil fuel burning.

evidence_id: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe:0

article: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

evidence: The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) – the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang.


text: Elementary radiative-transfer calculations demonstrate that a natural surface global brightening amounting to ~1.9 Wm–2 over the 18-year period of study would be expected – using the IPCC’s own methodology – to have caused a transient warming of 1 K (1.8 F°).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:87

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The global temperature increase since the beginning of the industrial period (taken as 1750) is about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), and the radiative forcing due to CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases – mainly methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons – emitted since that time is about 2.6 W/m2.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:92

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Taking planetary heat uptake rate as the rate of ocean heat uptake estimated by the IPCC AR4 as 0.2 W/m2, yields a value for S of 2.1 °C (3.8 °F).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:97

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Solar irradiance is about 0.9 W/m2 brighter during solar maximum than during solar minimum, which correlated in measured average global temperature over the period 1959-2004.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.

article: Paleocene

evidence: The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum was an approximate 200,000 year long event where the global average temperature rose by some 5 to 8 °C (9 to 14 °F), and mid-latitude and polar areas may have exceeded modern tropical temperatures of 24–29 °C (75–84 °F).


text: When we do the calculations and include all radiative forcings and the amount of heat being absorbed by the oceans, it shows that the Earth has warmed almost exactly as much as we would expect.

evidence_id: Earth's energy budget:10

article: Earth's energy budget

evidence: The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.

article: Earth

evidence: This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:26

article: Global warming

evidence: Although the most common measure of global warming is the increase in the near-surface atmospheric temperature, over 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system over the last 50 years has warmed ocean water.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:20

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:37

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: Earth's surface, warmed to an "effective temperature" around −18 °C (0 °F), radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–100 μm.


text: Arctic sea ice loss is three times greater than Antarctic sea ice gain, and the amount of solar energy absorbed by the Earth is increasing as a result.

article: Earth

evidence: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude.

article: Earth

evidence_id: Global warming:113

article: Global warming

evidence: More of the Sun's energy is now absorbed in these regions, contributing to Arctic amplification, which has caused Arctic temperatures to increase at more than twice the rate of the rest of the world.

votes: SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Sea ice:125

article: Sea ice

evidence: As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun's heat.

evidence_id: Sea ice:126

article: Sea ice

evidence: As the ice melts it lowers the albedo thus causing more heat to be absorbed by the Earth and further increase the amount of melting ice.

votes: SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS NOT_ENOUGH_INFO


text: When the internal variability is removed from the temperature record, what we find is nearly monotonic, accelerating warming throughout the 20th Century.

evidence_id: 20th century:94

article: 20th century

evidence: One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:5

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:78

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: This view ignores the presence of internal climate variability.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: The geological record, however, shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago.

article: Temperature

evidence: For a body that is not in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, different thermometers can record different temperatures, depending respectively on the mechanisms of operation of the thermometers.


text: The motions of the massive oceans where heat is moved between deep layers and the surface provides variability on time scales from years to centuries.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:63

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below −2 °C (28 °F) to over 30 °C (86 °F).

evidence_id: Climate variability:13

article: Climate variability

evidence: These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature, sea surface temperature, precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic, often occurring on inter-annual, multi-annual, decadal, multidecadal, century-wide, millennial or longer timescales.

evidence_id: Climate variability:18

article: Climate variability

evidence: El Niño and La Niña are important temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

evidence_id: Global warming:44

article: Global warming

evidence: By itself, the climate system experiences various cycles which can last for years (such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation) to decades or centuries.

article: Meteorology

evidence: Significant movement of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions.


text: In fact, the authors go on to estimate climate sensitivity from their findings, calculate a value between 2.3 to 4.1°C.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:27

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The IPCC literature assessment estimates that TCR likely lies between 1 °C and 2.5 °C.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:58

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:66

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The 1990 IPCC First Assessment Report estimated that equilibrium climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO 2 lay between 1.5 and 4.5 °C (2.7 and 8.1 °F), with a "best guess in the light of current knowledge" of 2.5 °C (4.5 °F).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:72

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: IPCC authors concluded ECS is very likely to be greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and likely to lie in the range 2 to 4.5 °C (4 to 8.1 °F), with a most likely value of about 3 °C (5 °F).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:74

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report reverted to the earlier range of 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F) (high confidence) because some estimates using industrial-age data came out low.


text: A new peer-reviewed study on Surface Warming and the Solar Cycle found that times of high solar activity are on average 0.2°C warmer than times of low solar activity, and that there is a polar amplification of the warming.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:21

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: According to a 2015 study, reductions in black carbon emissions and other minor greenhouse gases, by roughly 60 percent, could cool the Arctic up to 0.2 °C by 2050.

evidence_id: Global warming:463

article: Global warming

evidence: This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:31

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: Warming in the last 100 years has caused about a 0.74 °C increase in global average temperature.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:61

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: Climate sensitivity is defined as the amount of global average surface warming following a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations.

evidence_id: Solar cycle:171

article: Solar cycle

evidence: Also, average solar activity in the 2010s was no higher than in the 1950s (see above), whereas average global temperatures had risen markedly over that period.


text: The Petition Project features over 31,000 scientists signing the petition stating "there is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide will, in the forseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere".

evidence_id: Climate change denial:221

article: Climate change denial

evidence: There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:281

article: Global warming

evidence: In November 2017, a second warning to humanity signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries stated that "the current trajectory of potentially catastrophic climate change due to rising greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural production – particularly from farming ruminants for meat consumption" is "especially troubling".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:175

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Evidence from the geological record is consistent with the physics that shows that adding large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere warms the world and may lead to: higher sea levels and flooding of low-lying coasts; greatly changed patterns of rainfall; increased acidity of the oceans; and decreased oxygen levels in seawater.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:543

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: 7–10 "There is now convincing evidence that since the industrial revolution, human activities, resulting in increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases have become a major agent of climate change.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:77

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.


text: The 30,000 scientists and science graduates listed on the OISM petition represent a tiny fraction (0.3%) of all science graduates.

evidence_id: Art Robinson:26

article: Art Robinson

evidence: The OISM website states that "several members of the Institute's staff are also well known for their work on the Petition Project", and that the petition has "more than 31,000" signatures by scientists.

evidence_id: Art Robinson:27

article: Art Robinson

evidence: Robinson asserted in 2008 that the petition has over 31,000 signatories, with 9,000 of these holding a PhD degree.

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:404

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: The number of PhD graduates has grown substantially in many countries since 2000, PhD Graduates still represent a relatively small, elite group within most countries — around 1.1% of adults among OECD countries.

evidence_id: Oregon Petition:22

article: Oregon Petition

evidence: As of 2013, the petition's website states, "The current list of 31,487 petition signers includes 9,029 PhD; 7,157 MS; 2,586 MD and DVM; and 12,715 BS or equivalent academic degrees.

evidence_id: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics:53

evidence: The total fresh STEM graduates were 2.6 million in 2016.


text: More importantly, the OISM list only contains 39 scientists who specialise in climate science.

article: Antarctica

evidence: Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations.

article: Botany

evidence: A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field.

evidence_id: List of climate scientists:3

article: List of climate scientists

evidence: The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines.

evidence_id: Oregon Petition:40

article: Oregon Petition

evidence: In 2001, Scientific American took a random sample "of 30 of the 1,400 signatories claiming to hold a Ph.D. in a climate-related science."

evidence_id: Oregon Petition:43

article: Oregon Petition

evidence: Crudely extrapolating, the petition supporters include a core of about 200 climate researchers – a respectable number, though rather a small fraction of the climatological community.


text: The fact that so many studies on climate change don't bother to endorse the consensus position is significant because scientists have largely moved from what's causing global warming onto discussing details of the problem (eg - how fast, how soon, impacts, etc).

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):64

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: The scientific consensus on climate change is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities", and it "is largely irreversible".

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:144

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS) in 2007, issued a Statement on Environment and Sustainable Growth: As reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human-produced emission of greenhouse gases and this warming will continue unabated if present anthropogenic emissions continue or, worse, expand without control.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:650

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: AAWV Position Statement on Climate Change, Wildlife Diseases, and Wildlife Health "There is widespread scientific agreement that the world's climate is changing and that the weight of evidence demonstrates that anthropogenic factors have and will continue to contribute significantly to global warming and climate change.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:78

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: There is an extensive discussion in the scientific literature on what policies might be effective in responding to climate change.


text: Klaus-Martin Schulte examined all papers published from 2004 to February 2007.

evidence_id: February 8:168

article: February 8

evidence: Hippocrates and Medical Education: Selected Papers Presented at the XIIth International Hippocrates Colloquium, Universiteit Leiden, 24-26 August 2005.

evidence_id: Hitler Diaries:0

article: Hitler Diaries

evidence: The Hitler Diaries (German: Hitler-Tagebücher) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly written by Adolf Hitler, but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983.

evidence_id: Hitler Diaries:139

article: Hitler Diaries

evidence: More importantly, according to Harris, it was decided that they should not have the material examined by a forensic scientist or historian until every diary had been obtained.

evidence_id: Hitler Diaries:211

article: Hitler Diaries

evidence: While the discussions between Murdoch and Sorge were taking place, the diaries were examined by Broyle and his Newsweek team.

evidence_id: Hitler Diaries:668

article: Hitler Diaries


text: A drop of volcanic activity in the early 20th century may have had a warming effect.

evidence_id: 1257 Samalas eruption:133

article: 1257 Samalas eruption

evidence: Sea surface temperatures too decreased by 0.3–2.2 °C (0.54–3.96 °F), triggering changes in the ocean circulations.

evidence_id: African humid period:479

article: African humid period

evidence: In addition, the end of the 20th century drying trend may be due to global warming.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):98

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Notable eruptions in the historical records are the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo which lowered global temperatures by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) for up to three years, and the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora causing the Year Without a Summer.

article: Cloud

evidence: Most of the sunlight that reaches the ground is absorbed, warming the surface, which emits radiation upward at longer, infrared, wavelengths.

evidence_id: Lake Tahoe:247

article: Lake Tahoe

evidence: Analysis of the temperature records in Lake Tahoe has shown that the lake warmed (between 1969 and 2002) at an average rate of 0.027 °F (0.015 °C) per year.


text: However, volcanoes have had very little impact on the last 40 years of global warming.

article: Climate change (general concept)

article: Huaynaputina

evidence: The eruption had a noticeable impact on growth conditions in the Northern Hemisphere, which were the worst of the last 600 years, with summers being on average 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) colder than the mean.

evidence_id: Ice age:137

article: Ice age

evidence: The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.

evidence_id: Younger Dryas:0

article: Younger Dryas

evidence: The Younger Dryas (around 12,800 to 11,550 years BP) was a return to glacial conditions after the Late Glacial Interstadial, which temporarily reversed the gradual climatic warming after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) started receding around 20,000 BP.

evidence_id: Younger Dryas:952

article: Younger Dryas

evidence: "Volcanic influence on centennial to millennial Holocene Greenland temperature change".


text: When stomata-derived CO2 (red) is compared to ice core-derived CO2 (blue), the stomata generally show much more variability in the atmospheric CO2 level and often show levels much higher than the ice cores.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:56

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO 2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:112

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO 2 variability.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:113

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:127

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.

evidence_id: Ice core:4

article: Ice core

evidence: The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide.


text: Arctic summer sea ice has shrunk by an area equal to Western Australia, and might be all gone in a decade.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:164

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:7

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.

article: Arctic

evidence: There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100.

article: Arctic

evidence: About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.

evidence_id: Global warming:150

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice, making it vulnerable to atmospheric anomalies.


text: Thanks to a rapid rebound in recent months, global sea ice levels now equal those seen 29 years ago, when the year 1979 also drew to a close.

article: Glacier

evidence: This post-glacial rebound, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America.

evidence_id: Ice age:249

article: Ice age

evidence: Due to the high viscosity of the Earth's mantle, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:111

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:48

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Thus global sea level fell during glaciation.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:99

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise.


text: In fact, the rate of increase from September onward is the fastest rate of change on record, either upwards or downwards.

evidence_id: Financial crisis of 2007–08:396

article: Financial crisis of 2007–08

evidence: It then entered a pronounced decline, which accelerated markedly in October 2008.

evidence_id: Financial crisis of 2007–08:477

article: Financial crisis of 2007–08

evidence: The TED spread, an indicator of perceived credit risk in the general economy, spiked up in July 2007, remained volatile for a year, then spiked even higher in September 2008, reaching a record 4.65% on October 10, 2008.

evidence_id: Financial crisis of 2007–08:552

article: Financial crisis of 2007–08

evidence: The US unemployment rate increased to 10.1% by October 2009, the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate.

evidence_id: Financial crisis of 2007–08:83

article: Financial crisis of 2007–08

evidence: Already-rising default rates on "subprime" and adjustable-rate mortgages (ARM) began to increase quickly thereafter.

evidence_id: Tendency of the rate of profit to fall:1042

article: Tendency of the rate of profit to fall

evidence: From September 2018 onward, as the economic and political news worsened, the bloated US stockmarkets began to deflate, while the VIX index trebled.


text: The data is being reported by the University of Illinois's Arctic Climate Research Center, and is derived from satellite observations of the Northern and Southern hemisphere polar regions (Daily Tech).

article: Cryosphere

evidence: Satellite data since the early 1970s reveal considerable seasonal, regional, and interannual variability in the sea-ice covers of both hemispheres.

evidence_id: Extratropical cyclone:70

article: Extratropical cyclone

evidence: It was developed completely from surface-based weather observations, including descriptions of clouds found near frontal boundaries.

article: Precipitation

evidence: As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.

article: Precipitation

evidence: The IR estimates have rather low skill at short time and space scales, but are available very frequently (15 minutes or more often) from satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit.

article: Snow

evidence: These models typically derive snow water equivalent (SWE) in some manner from satellite observations of snow cover.


text: Ice mass loss is occuring at an accelerated rate in Greenland, Antarctica and globally from inland glaciers.

evidence_id: Ice sheet:26

article: Ice sheet

evidence: The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall.

evidence_id: Pine Island Glacier:0

article: Pine Island Glacier

evidence: Pine Island Glacier (PIG) is a large ice stream, and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica, responsible for about 25% of Antarctica's ice loss.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:343

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: The significant accelerations noted on the three largest glaciers began at the calving front and propagated inland and are not seasonal in nature.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:978

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: "Sharply increased mass loss from glaciers and ice caps in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:639

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "A tipping point in refreezing accelerates mass loss of Greenland's glaciers and ice caps".


text: Arctic sea ice is also falling at an accelerated rate.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:14

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The fast rate of the sea ice melting is resulting in the oceans absorbing and heating up the Arctic.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:271

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice.

article: Arctic

evidence: "Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:34

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The rate of the decline in entire Arctic ice coverage is accelerating.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:492

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Antarctica ice melt has accelerated by 280% in the last 4 decades".


text: The exception to this ice loss is Antarctic sea ice which has been growing despite the warming Southern Ocean.

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:13

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: Since the ocean off the Antarctic coast usually is much warmer than the air over it, the extent of the sea ice is largely controlled by the winds and currents that push it northwards.

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:19

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: The net change is a slight increase in the area of sea ice in the Antarctic seas (unlike the Arctic Ocean, which is showing a much stronger decrease in the area of sea ice).

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:20

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: Increased sea ice extent does not indicate that the Southern Ocean is cooling, since the Southern Ocean is warming.

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:25

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: Sea ice coverage in the Arctic has shrunk at a much faster rate than it has expanded in the Southern Ocean.

article: Antarctica

evidence: Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer.


text: Together, these two unaltered [sea level] datasets indicate that global mean sea level trend has remained stable over the entire period 1992-2007, altogether eliminating the apparent 3.2 mm/year rate of sea-level rise arising from the “adjusted” data.

evidence: Measurements by Jason-1 indicate that mean sea level has been rising at an average rate of 2.28 millimeters (.09 inches) per year since 2001.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:223

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: Since 1900, the sea level has risen at an average of 1.7 mm (0.067 in) per year; since 1993, satellite altimetry from TOPEX/Poseidon indicates a rate of about 3 mm (0.12 in) per year.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:38

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Current rates of sea level rise from satellite altimetry have been estimated to be 3.0 ± 0.4 millimetres (0.118 ± 0.016 in) per year for the period 1993–2017.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:49

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This network was used, in combination with satellite altimeter data, to establish that global mean sea-level rose 19.5 cm (7.7 in) between 1870 and 2004 at an average rate of about 1.44 mm/yr (1.7 mm/yr during the 20th century).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:50

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Data collected by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia show the current global mean sea level trend to be 3.2 mm (0.13 in) per year, a doubling of the rate during the 20th century.


text: The claim sea level isn’t rising is based on blatantly doctored graphs and conspiracy theories that are contradicted by empirical observational data.

article: Econometrics

evidence: More precisely, it is "the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation, related by appropriate methods of inference".

article: Falsifiability

evidence: In the philosophy of science, verificationism holds that a statement must, in principle, be empirically verifiable in order that it be scientific.

evidence_id: Logical positivism:21

article: Logical positivism

evidence: A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.

article: Science

evidence: Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences as their knowledge are based on empirical observations and are capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

article: Science

evidence: Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.


text: The original global temperature schematic which appeared in the IPCC First Assessment Report and seemed to show the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) hotter than Present was based on the central England temperature record, and ended in the 1950s.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:270

evidence: This graph extended the similar graph in Figure 3.20 from the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995, and differed from a schematic in the first assessment report that lacked temperature units, but appeared to depict larger global temperature variations over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period than the mid 20th century.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:271

evidence: The schematic was not an actual plot of data, and was based on a diagram of temperatures in central England, with temperatures increased on the basis of documentary evidence of Medieval vineyards in England.

evidence_id: Medieval Warm Period:0

article: Medieval Warm Period

evidence: The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) also known as the Medieval Climate Optimum, or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region lasting from c. 950 to c. 1250.

evidence_id: Medieval Warm Period:15

article: Medieval Warm Period

evidence: However, that view was questioned by other researchers; the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 discussed the "Medieval Warm Period around 1000 AD (which may not have been global) and the Little Ice Age which ended only in the middle to late nineteenth century."

evidence_id: Soon and Baliunas controversy:7

article: Soon and Baliunas controversy

evidence: The IPCC First Assessment Report included a "schematic diagram" of global temperature variations over the last thousand years which has been traced to a graph based loosely on Hubert Lamb's 1965 paper.


text: "by the 2001 [IPCC] climate assessment...the Medieval Warm Period had been ingeniously wiped out.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:34

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: The IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 noted evidence that Holocene climatic optimum around 5,000-6,000 years ago had been warmer than the present (at least in summer) and that in some areas there had been exceptional warmth during "a shorter Medieval Warm Period (which may not have been global)" about AD 950-1250, followed by a cooler period of the Little Ice Age which ended only in the middle to late nineteenth century.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:298

evidence: These values are much greater than the 9–88 cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001".

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:348

evidence: "We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment..." Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society.

evidence_id: Medieval Warm Period:16

article: Medieval Warm Period

evidence: The IPCC Third Assessment Report from 2001 then summarized research: "evidence does not support globally synchronous periods of anomalous cold or warmth over this time frame, and the conventional terms of 'Little Ice Age' and 'Medieval Warm Period' appear to have limited utility in describing trends in hemispheric or global mean temperature changes in past centuries."


text: The Ozone Layer stops UV radiation from entering our atmosphere.

article: Earth

evidence: The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land.

evidence_id: Ozone layer:22

article: Ozone layer

evidence: Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun.

evidence_id: Ozone layer:44

article: Ozone layer

evidence: The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

evidence_id: Ozone layer:45

article: Ozone layer

evidence: Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity.

article: Ozone

evidence: It is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.


text: At present, climate forecasts even as little as six weeks ahead can be diametrically the opposite of what actually occurs, even if the forecasts are limited to a small region of the planet.'

evidence_id: Ensemble forecasting:15

article: Ensemble forecasting

evidence: These uncertainties limit forecast model accuracy to about six days into the future.

evidence_id: Ensemble forecasting:9

article: Ensemble forecasting

evidence: As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963, it is impossible for long-range forecasts—those made more than two weeks in advance—to predict the state of the atmosphere with any degree of skill owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved.

article: Meteorology

evidence: Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth (climate models), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as coarse as the older weather prediction models.

article: Meteorology

evidence: Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere at a future time and given location.

evidence_id: Weather forecasting:100

article: Weather forecasting

evidence: As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963, long range forecasts, those made at a range of two weeks or more, are impossible to definitively predict the state of the atmosphere, owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved.


text: Weather is chaotic because air is light, it has low friction and viscosity, it expands strongly when in contact with hot surfaces and it conducts heat poorly.

article: Friction

evidence: The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces).

article: Liquid

evidence: Liquids tend to have better thermal conductivity than gases, and the ability to flow makes a liquid suitable for removing excess heat from mechanical components.

article: Viscosity

evidence: The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of a fluid.

article: Weather

evidence: Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another.

article: Weather

evidence: A hot surface warms the air above it causing it to expand and lower the density and the resulting surface air pressure.


text: The Independent Climate Change Email Review found the CRU scientists were unhelpful and unsympathetic to information requesters and at times broke FoI laws.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:159

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: The Science and Technology Select Committee report blamed the university for mishandling Freedom of Information requests and said it had "found ways to support the culture at CRU of resisting disclosure of information to climate change sceptics".

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:37

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: The e-mail theft highlighted "the harassment that denialists inflict on some climate-change researchers, often in the form of endless, time-consuming demands for information under the US and UK Freedom of Information Acts.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:256

evidence: Over 95% of the CRU climate data set had been available to the public for several years before July 2009, when the university received numerous FOI requests for raw data or details of the confidentiality agreements from Stephen McIntyre and readers of his Climate Audit blog.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:83

evidence: In addition, the investigation would review CRU's compliance with Freedom of Information Act requests and also "make recommendations about the management, governance and security structures for CRU and the security, integrity and release of the data it holds".

evidence_id: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit:57

evidence: It blamed the university for mishandling Freedom of Information requests, and said it had “found ways to support the culture at CRU of resisting disclosure of information to climate change sceptics”.


text: Skeptics who oppose scientific findings that threaten their world view are far closer to Galileo's belief-based critics in the Catholic Church.

article: Creationism

evidence: Several religious organizations, among them the Catholic Church, hold that their faith does not conflict with the scientific consensus regarding evolution.

evidence_id: Creation–evolution controversy:244

article: Creation–evolution controversy

evidence: Many creationists strongly oppose certain scientific theories in a number of ways, including opposition to specific applications of scientific processes, accusations of bias within the scientific community, and claims that discussions within the scientific community reveal or imply a crisis.

evidence_id: Galileo affair:12

article: Galileo affair

evidence: Galileo's contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those of Aristotle and Ptolemy and closely associated with the Catholic Church.

evidence_id: Galileo affair:4

article: Galileo affair

evidence: Galileo's discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616 the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be "formally heretical."

evidence_id: Science and the Catholic Church:24

article: Science and the Catholic Church

evidence: An alternative criticism is that the Church opposed particular scientific discoveries that it felt challenged its authority and power – particularly through the Reformation and on through the Enlightenment.


text: "I mean, it - I mean - and I tell somebody, I said, just because you have a group of scientists that have stood up and said here is the fact, Galileo got outvoted for a spell" (Texas Governor Rick Perry)

evidence_id: 2006 Texas gubernatorial election:2

article: 2006 Texas gubernatorial election

evidence: Perry was re-elected to a second full term in office, winning 39% of the vote to Bell's 30%, Strayhorn's 18% and Friedman's 12%.

evidence_id: 2006 Texas gubernatorial election:4

article: 2006 Texas gubernatorial election

evidence: Exit polls revealed that Perry won the Anglo vote with 46%, while Bell got 22%, Strayhorn got 16% and Friedman got 15%.

evidence_id: Rick Perry 2012 presidential campaign:8

article: Rick Perry 2012 presidential campaign

evidence: Further, during a Republican gubernatorial debate in January 2010, when asked if he would commit to serving out his term if re-elected, he replied that "the place hasn't been made yet" where he would rather serve than the governor of Texas.

evidence_id: Rick Perry:107

article: Rick Perry

evidence: Perry has called himself "a firm believer in intelligent design as a matter of faith and intellect", and has expressed support for its teaching alongside evolution in Texas schools, but has also said that "educators and local school officials, not the governor, should determine science curriculum".

evidence_id: Rick Perry:129

article: Rick Perry

evidence: Jeff L. Blackburn, chief counsel of the Innocence Project of Texas, said of Perry that "He has done more good than any other governor we've ever had [...] unless, of course, it involves the death penalty.


text: Claims that the IPCC does not accurately represent the views and findings of the scientists, on whose work the IPCC reports are based, are not supported by the facts.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:180

evidence: [...] This conclusion is based on a substantial array of scientific evidence, including recent work, and is consistent with the conclusions of recent assessments by the U.S.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:23

evidence: The U.S. government was the main force in forming the IPCC as an autonomous intergovernmental body in which scientists took part both as experts on the science and as official representatives of their governments, to produce reports which had the firm backing of all the leading scientists worldwide researching the topic, and which then had to gain consensus agreement from every one of the participating governments.

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:117

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: This report explicitly endorses the IPCC view of attribution of recent climate change as representing the view of the scientific community: The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes is also a reflection of natural variability.

evidence_id: The Great Global Warming Swindle:69

article: The Great Global Warming Swindle

evidence: The film argues that IPCC reports misrepresent the views of scientists who contribute to them through selective editorialising.


text: Ironically, it's those who are mispresenting Hulme's paper that are the ones being misleading.

article: Imagism

evidence: This note, along with the appendix note ("The Complete Works of T. S. Hulme") in Pound's book Ripostes (1912), are considered to be the first appearances of the word "Imagiste" (later anglicised to "Imagist") in print.

article: Imagism

evidence: To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.

article: Imagism

evidence: Imagism refers to the manner of presentation, not to the subject."

evidence_id: Mike Hulme:11

article: Mike Hulme

evidence: He is best known as the author of Why We Disagree About Climate Change published in 2009 by Cambridge University Press and which was named by The Economist in December 2009 as one of their four Books of Year for science and technology.

evidence_id: Mike Hulme:16

article: Mike Hulme

evidence: In 2008, Hulme made a personal statement on what he called the "5 lessons of climate change", as: "climate change is a relative risk, not an absolute one" "climate risks are serious, and we should seek to minimise them" "our world has huge unmet development needs" "our current energy portfolio is not sustainable" "massive and deliberate geo-engineering of the planet is a dubious practice" After the Climatic Research Unit email controversy, he wrote an article for the BBC in which he said: At the very least, the publication of private CRU e-mail correspondence should be seen as a wake-up call for scientists – and especially for climate scientists.


text: 'The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change misled the press and public into believing that thousands of scientists backed its claims on manmade global warming, according to Mike Hulme, a prominent climate scientist and IPCC insider.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:725

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:0

evidence: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations that is dedicated to providing the world with objective, scientific information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of the risk of human-induced climate change, its natural, political, and economic impacts and risks, and possible response options.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:253

evidence: There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community, which is reflected in publications by other scientific bodies and experts.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:280

evidence: Criticism of the MBH99 reconstruction in a review paper, which was quickly discredited in the Soon and Baliunas controversy, was picked up by the Bush administration, and a Senate speech by US Republican senator James Inhofe alleged that "manmade global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people".

evidence_id: United Nations:234

article: United Nations

evidence: In 1988, the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another UN organization, established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses and reports on research on global warming.


text: Science entitled The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change (Oreskes 2004).

evidence_id: Benny Peiser:51

article: Benny Peiser

evidence: In 2004, a paper was published in the journal Science by Naomi Oreskes titled Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change.

evidence_id: Merchants of Doubt:55

article: Merchants of Doubt

evidence: Her work came to public attention in 2004 with the publication of "The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change," in Science, in which she wrote that there was no significant disagreement in the scientific community about the reality of global warming from human causes.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:258

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: In 2004, the geologist and historian of science Naomi Oreskes summarized a study of the scientific literature on climate change.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:34

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Working Group I report (WG1) was published in September 2013.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:732

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Naomi Oreskes (December 3, 2004).


text: Benny Peiser conducted a search of peer-reviewed literature on the ISI Web of Science database between 1993 and 2003.

evidence_id: Google Scholar:0

article: Google Scholar

evidence: Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.

evidence_id: Google Scholar:1

article: Google Scholar

evidence: Released in beta in November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online academic journals and books, conference papers, theses and dissertations, preprints, abstracts, technical reports, and other scholarly literature, including court opinions and patents.

evidence_id: Philosophy of geography:14

article: Philosophy of geography

evidence: In 2005 the society sponsoring these annual meetings became the International Association for the Study of Environment, Space, and Place, and in 2009 the book series gave way to a peer-reviewed journal, Environment, Space, Place, published semiannually and currently edited by C. Patrick Heidkamp, Troy Paddock, and Christine Petto of Southern Connecticut State University.

evidence_id: Philosophy of geography:6

article: Philosophy of geography

evidence: Three volumes of an annual peer-reviewed journal, Philosophy and Geography, were published by Rowman & Littlefield Press which later became a bi-annual journal published by Carfax publishers.

evidence_id: Web of Science:1

article: Web of Science

evidence: It was originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and is currently maintained by Clarivate Analytics (previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters) A citation index is built on the fact that citations in science serve as linkages between similar research items, and lead to matching or related scientific literature, such as journal articles, conference proceedings, abstracts, etc.


text: For example, geothermal energy is available at all times, concentrated solar thermal energy has storage capability, and wind energy can be stored in compressed air.

evidence_id: Concentrated solar power:110

article: Concentrated solar power

evidence: The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at nameplate capacity.

evidence_id: Concentrated solar power:116

article: Concentrated solar power

evidence: CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using Brayton cycle with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round the clock.

evidence_id: Concentrated solar power:16

article: Concentrated solar power

evidence: A CSP plant can incorporate thermal energy storage, which stores energy either in the form of sensible heat, or as latent heat (for example, using molten salt), which enables these plants to continue to generate electricity whenever it is needed, day or night.

evidence_id: Solar power:211

article: Solar power

evidence: Concentrated solar power plants may use thermal storage to store solar energy, such as in high-temperature molten salts.

evidence_id: Thermal energy storage:14

article: Thermal energy storage

evidence: Presently, this is a commercially used technology to store the heat collected by concentrated solar power (e.g., from a solar tower or solar trough).


text: Numerous case studies on both regional and global scales have determined that renewable energy, if properly implemented, can provide baseload power.

evidence_id: Renewable energy in Kenya:13

article: Renewable energy in Kenya

evidence: Geothermal power has the potential to provide reliable, cost-competitive, baseload power with a small carbon footprint, and reduces vulnerability to climate by diversifying power supply away from hydropower, which currently provides the majority of Kenya’s electricity.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:141

article: Renewable energy

evidence: Low temperature Geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP") is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:362

article: Renewable energy

evidence: EGS and HDR technologies, such as hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources which produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant.

evidence_id: Variable renewable energy:19

article: Variable renewable energy

evidence: Firm capacity is the amount of power that can be guaranteed to be provided as base power.

evidence_id: Variable renewable energy:325

article: Variable renewable energy

evidence: Some renewable electricity sources have identical variability to coal-fired power stations, so they are base-load, and can be integrated into the electricity supply system without any additional back-up.


text: Trenberth's views are clarified in the paper "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy".

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:470

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence_id: Earth Summit 2002:14

article: Earth Summit 2002

evidence: The Declaration on the Human Environment also known as the Stockholm Declaration set out the principles for various international environmental issues, including human rights, natural resource management, pollution prevention and the relationship between the environment and development.

evidence_id: Global warming:362

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".

evidence_id: Kevin E. Trenberth:13

article: Kevin E. Trenberth

evidence: In a 2013 scientific paper in Geophysical Research Letters, Trenberth and co-authors presented an observation-based reanalysis of global ocean temperatures.

evidence_id: Kevin E. Trenberth:7

article: Kevin E. Trenberth

evidence: In a 2009 paper, "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy", Trenberth discussed the distribution of heat and how it was affected by climate forcing, including greenhouse gas changes.


text: As it happens, the writer of that October 2009 e-mail—Kevin Trenberth, a lead author of the warmist bible, the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report—told Congress two years ago that evidence for manmade warming is "unequivocal.

evidence_id: Global warming:346

article: Global warming

evidence: IPCC AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2013, p. 4: Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia.

evidence_id: Kevin E. Trenberth:1

article: Kevin E. Trenberth

evidence: He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change (see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) program.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:226

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: In October 2009, the leaders of 18 US scientific societies and organizations sent an open letter to the United States Senate reaffirming the scientific consensus that climate change is occurring and is primarily caused by human activities.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:455

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Retrieved 2010-08-28. the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950 Stevens, William K. (2007-02-06).

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:58

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The New York Times reported that "the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950".


text: He claimed "the planet is running a ’fever’ and the prognosis is that it is apt to get much worse."

evidence_id: Dengue fever:689

article: Dengue fever

evidence: "The current and future global distribution and population at risk of dengue".

article: Dysentery

evidence: If the disease is left untreated, the prognosis varies with the immune status of the individual patient and the severity of disease.

article: Prognosis

evidence: Prognosis (Greek: πρόγνωσις "fore-knowing, foreseeing") is a medical term for predicting the likely or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stable over time; expectations of quality of life, such as the ability to carry out daily activities; the potential for complications and associated health issues; and the likelihood of survival (including life expectancy).

evidence_id: Scarlet fever:165

article: Scarlet fever

evidence: The improvement in prognosis can be attributed to the use of penicillin in the treatment of this disease.

evidence_id: Scarlet fever:486

article: Scarlet fever

evidence: "Scarlet fever, a disease of yore, is making a comeback in parts of the world".


text: But Trenberth’s "lack of warming at the moment" has been going on at least a decade.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:511

evidence: Here is the quote: "The fact is that we can't account for the lack of warming at the moment and it is a travesty that we can't."

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:42

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: In January 2013 James Hansen and colleagues published their updated analysis that temperatures had continued at a high level despite strong La Niña conditions, and said the "5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing", noting "that the 10 warmest years in the record all occurred since 1998."

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:580

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: Global climate change has contributed to the higher sea surface and ocean temperatures, and a warmer and moister atmosphere, and its effects are in the range of 5 to 10%.

evidence_id: Kevin E. Trenberth:17

article: Kevin E. Trenberth

evidence: This was associated with a change of surface winds over the Pacific which had caused ocean heat to penetrate below 700m depth and had contributed to the apparent global warming hiatus in surface temperatures during the previous decade.

evidence_id: Kevin E. Trenberth:18

article: Kevin E. Trenberth

evidence: In an interview, Trenberth said, "The planet is warming", but "the warmth just isn't being manifested at the surface."


text: Heat is continuing to build up in the subsurface ocean.

evidence_id: Heat wave:46

article: Heat wave

evidence: The end result is a continual build-up of heat at the surface that people experience as a heat wave.

article: Ocean

evidence: Titan is thought to have a subsurface liquid-water ocean under the ice in addition to the hydrocarbon mix that forms atop its outer crust.

article: Ocean

evidence: Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles.

article: Ocean

evidence: Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation.

article: Ocean

evidence: It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation.


text: Wu et al (2010) use a new method to calculate ice sheet mass balance.

article: Geoid

evidence: "Interannual variations of the mass balance of the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets from GRACE".

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:284

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: "A method of combining ICESat and GRACE satellite data to constrain Antarctic mass balance".

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:13

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: The mass balance, or difference between accumulation and ablation (melting and sublimation), of a glacier is crucial to its survival.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:497

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "A Reconciled Estimate of Ice-Sheet Mass Balance".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:91

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A combination of satellite observations of its changing volume, flow and gravitational attraction with modelling of its surface mass balance suggests the overall mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet was relatively steady or slightly positive for much of the period 1992–2017.


text: "Rapid loss of ice-mass from the glaciers of Greenland and Antarctica are  cited as proof positive of global warming's onslaught.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):200

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Land ice sheets in both Antarctica and Greenland have been losing mass since 2002 and have seen an acceleration of ice mass loss since 2009.

evidence_id: Ice sheet:26

article: Ice sheet

evidence: The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:1187

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: "Increasing rates of ice mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets revealed by GRACE".

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:9

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: Since 1980, a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether, and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:978

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: "Sharply increased mass loss from glaciers and ice caps in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago".


text: The latest  measurements involve the use of satellite gravimetry, estimating  the mass of terrain beneath by detecting slight changes in gravity as a  satellite passes overhead.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:1

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:55

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: As the twin GRACE satellites circle the globe 15 times a day, they sense minute variations in Earth's gravitational pull.

article: Gravimeter

evidence: Their first uses were to measure the changes in gravity from the varying densities and distribution of masses inside the earth, from temporal "tidal" variations in the shape and distribution of mass in the oceans, atmosphere and earth.

evidence_id: Gravity Probe B:1

article: Gravity Probe B

evidence: This was to be accomplished by measuring, very precisely, tiny changes in the direction of spin of four gyroscopes contained in an Earth satellite orbiting at 650 km (400 mi) altitude, crossing directly over the poles.

evidence_id: Gravity of Mars:257

article: Gravity of Mars

evidence: "Tests and combination of satellite determinations of the gravity field with gravimetry".


text: But gravity measurements of ice-mass loss are  complicated by glacial isostatic adjustments—compensation for the rise or fall of the underlying crustal material.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:34

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: Glacial isostatic adjustment—the slow rise of land masses once depressed by the weight of ice sheets from the last ice age—is chief among these signals.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:1

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are phases of glacial isostasy (glacial isostatic adjustment, glacioisostasy), the deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:105

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:107

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:5

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: The enormous weight of this ice caused the surface of the Earth's crust to deform and warp downward, forcing the viscoelastic mantle material to flow away from the loaded region.


text: A new article in Nature Geoscience  describes an innovative approach employed to derive ice-mass changes  from GRACE data.

evidence_id: Antarctic ice sheet:26

article: Antarctic ice sheet

evidence: A 2006 paper derived from satellite data, measuring changes in the gravity of the ice mass, suggests that the total amount of ice in Antarctica has begun decreasing in the past few years.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:167

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: "Regional acceleration in ice mass loss from Greenland and Antarctica using GRACE time-variable gravity data".

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:21

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: Scientists have also detailed improved methods for using GRACE data to describe Earth's gravity field.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:22

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: GRACE data are critical in helping to determine the cause of sea level rise, whether it is the result of mass being added to the ocean - from melting glaciers, for example - or from thermal expansion of warming water or changes in salinity.

evidence_id: GRACE and GRACE-FO:26

article: GRACE and GRACE-FO

evidence: GRACE data have provided a record of mass loss within the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.


text: The report suggests significantly smaller overall  ice-mass losses than previous estimates.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:208

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: This represents a loss of 8% of the ice field, with all glaciers experiencing significant retreat.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:224

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Mueller, Maud, Hooker, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Murchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:226

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976–2014 is 34 percent of the total.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:94

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: As with glaciers worldwide, those of the greater Himalayan region are experiencing a decline in mass, and researchers claim that between the early 1970s and early 2000s, there had been a 9 percent reduction in ice mass.

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850


text: Though CRU neglected to provide an exact list of temperature stations, it could not have hid or tampered with data.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:162

evidence: The MPs had seen no evidence to support claims that Jones had tampered with data or interfered with the peer-review process.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:255

evidence: The Climatic Research Unit developed its gridded CRUTEM data set of land air temperature anomalies from instrumental temperature records held by National Meteorological Organisations around the world, often under formal or informal confidentiality agreements that restricted use of this raw data to academic purposes, and prevented it from being passed onto third parties.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:263

evidence: On 27 July 2011 CRU announced that the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain had been released and was available for download, with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request.

evidence_id: Data mining:13

article: Data mining

evidence: The difference between data analysis and data mining is that data analysis is used to test models and hypotheses on the dataset, e.g., analyzing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign, regardless of the amount of data; in contrast, data mining uses machine learning and statistical models to uncover clandestine or hidden patterns in a large volume of data.

evidence_id: Data visualization:141

article: Data visualization

evidence: DPA has two main objectives: To use data to provide knowledge in the most efficient manner possible (minimize noise, complexity, and unnecessary data or detail given each audience's needs and roles) To use data to provide knowledge in the most effective manner possible (provide relevant, timely and complete data to each audience member in a clear and understandable manner that conveys important meaning, is actionable and can affect understanding, behavior and decisions) With the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of: Creating effective delivery mechanisms for each audience member depending on their role, tasks, locations and access to technology Defining important meaning (relevant knowledge) that is needed by each audience member in each context Determining the required periodicity of data updates (the currency of the data) Determining the right timing for data presentation (when and how often the user needs to see the data) Finding the right data (subject area, historical reach, breadth, level of detail, etc.)


text: "So  recently the media picked up on the fact that CRU deleted the raw data for this  important global temperature set long ago.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:177

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: On 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain, with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:125

evidence: They were already working with the Met Office to obtain permissions to release the remaining raw data.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:256

evidence: Over 95% of the CRU climate data set had been available to the public for several years before July 2009, when the university received numerous FOI requests for raw data or details of the confidentiality agreements from Stephen McIntyre and readers of his Climate Audit blog.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:4

evidence: The mainstream media picked up the story, as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009.


text: The interesting point is that it also seems each time they come across a new  dataset it is simply replaced.

evidence_id: Cross-validation (statistics):3

article: Cross-validation (statistics)

evidence: The goal of cross-validation is to test the model's ability to predict new data that was not used in estimating it, in order to flag problems like overfitting or selection bias and to give an insight on how the model will generalize to an independent dataset (i.e., an unknown dataset, for instance from a real problem).

article: SeaLifeBase

evidence: This would mean that when a new hypothesis needs to be tested, the available data will already be there in a validated and accessible form, and there will be no need create a new dataset and then have to validate it.

article: They

evidence: It was gradually replaced by an Old Norse borrowing, þeir (nominative plural masculine of the demonstrative, which acted in Old Norse as a plural pronoun), until it was entirely replaced in around the 15th century in Middle English.

article: ZFS

evidence: A device in any vdev can be marked for removal, and ZFS will de-allocate data from it to allow it to be removed or replaced.

article: ZFS

evidence: A pool level snapshot (known as a "checkpoint") is available which allows rollback of operations that may affect the entire pool's structure, or which add or remove entire datasets.


text: Maximum warming occurs over the surface during winter while less surface warming is found in summer when heat is being used to melt sea ice.

evidence_id: Climate of the Arctic:135

article: Climate of the Arctic

evidence: In summer, the sea ice keeps the surface from warming above freezing.

article: Cryosphere

evidence: While snow and ice act to insulate the surface from large energy losses in winter, they also act to retard warming in the spring and summer because of the large amount of energy required to melt ice (the latent heat of fusion, 3.34 x 105 J/kg at 0 °C).

evidence_id: Ice age:120

article: Ice age

evidence: This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer.

evidence_id: Sea ice:102

article: Sea ice

evidence: In the Arctic, the area of ocean covered by sea ice increases over winter from a minimum in September to a maximum in March or sometimes February, before melting over the summer.

evidence_id: Sea ice:125

article: Sea ice

evidence: As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun's heat.


text: The authors seem to have jumped right  into statistical  analysis without proposing a physical mechanism that  works.

evidence_id: Artificial intelligence:506

article: Artificial intelligence

evidence: Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action."

article: Chemistry

evidence: Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions.

evidence_id: Free will:883

article: Free will

evidence: In fact, according to the generalized interpretation of the psycho-physical parallelism, the freedom of the will must be considered a feature of conscious life that corresponds to functions of the organism that not only evade a causal mechanical description, but resist even a physical analysis carried to the extent required for an unambiguous application of the statistical laws of atomic mechanics.

evidence_id: Scientific method:598

article: Scientific method

evidence: One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model.

evidence_id: Sensor-based sorting:156

article: Sensor-based sorting

evidence: The washability analysis is widely known in bulk material analysis, where the specific density is the physical property describing the liberation and the separation results, which is then in the form of the partition curve.