text: while it’s true that studies in some regions show polar bears are lighter in weight than they were in the 1980s, there is no evidence that more individuals are starving to death or becoming too thin to reproduce because of less summer ice.

article: Polar bear

evidence_id: Polar bear:190

article: Polar bear

evidence: They still manage to consume some seals, but they are food-deprived in summer as only marine mammal carcasses are an important alternative without sea ice, especially carcasses of the beluga whale.

evidence_id: Polar bear:231

article: Polar bear

evidence: A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.Maternal success appeared to decline after this point, possibly because of an age-related impairment in the ability to store the fat necessary to rear cubs.

evidence_id: Polar bear:376

article: Polar bear

evidence: In Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the denning locations of pregnant females.

article: Polar bear


text: The failure of the 2007 polar bear survival model is a simple fact that explodes the myth that polar bears are on their way to extinction.

evidence_id: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event:0

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) extinction, was a sudden mass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth, approximately 66 million years ago.

evidence_id: Extinction event:11

article: Extinction event

evidence: The most recent and arguably best-known, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago (Ma), was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time.

evidence_id: Extinction event:604

article: Extinction event

evidence: "Fossil record supports evidence of impending mass extinction".

evidence_id: Holocene extinction:183

article: Holocene extinction

evidence: For the first time since the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, we face a global mass extinction of wildlife.

evidence_id: Quaternary extinction event:0

article: Quaternary extinction event

evidence: The Quaternary period (from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present) saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly megafaunal species, which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity and the extinction of key ecological strata across the globe.


text: Using satellite data rather than tide-gauge data that is normally used to measure sea levels allows for more precise estimates of global sea level, since it provides measurements of the open ocean.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence: These very accurate observations of variations in sea surface height—also known as ocean topography—provide information about global sea level, the speed and direction of ocean currents, and heat stored in the ocean.

evidence_id: Remote sensing:22

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Remote sensing

evidence: Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a wide range of data.

evidence_id: Remote sensing:25

article: Remote sensing

evidence: Ultrasound (acoustic) and radar tide gauges measure sea level, tides and wave direction in coastal and offshore tide gauges.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:31

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Tide gauges can only measure relative sea level, whilst satellites can also measure absolute sea level changes.

evidence_id: Tide gauge:0

article: Tide gauge

evidence: A tide gauge is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a vertical datum.


text: Sea level rise of 65 centimeters, or roughly 2 feet would cause significant problems for coastal cities around the world.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:15

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Further effects are higher storm-surges and more dangerous tsunamis, displacement of populations, loss and degradation of agricultural land and damage in cities.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:168

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A rise of 2.4 m (8 feet) is physically possible under a high emission scenario but the authors were unable to say how likely.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:234

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Future sea level rise could lead to potentially catastrophic difficulties for shore-based communities in the next centuries: for example, millions of people will be affected in cities such as Miami, Rio de Janeiro, Osaka and Shanghai if following the current trajectory of 3 °C (5.4 °F).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:8

article: Sea level rise

evidence: For example, in 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected a high end estimate of 60 cm (2 ft) through 2099, but their 2014 report raised the high-end estimate to about 90 cm (3 ft).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:9

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A number of later studies have concluded that a global sea level rise of 200 to 270 cm (6.6 to 8.9 ft) this century is "physically plausible".


text: more so than downsizing one’s car, or being vigilant about turning off light bulbs, and certainly more than quitting showering.

evidence_id: Efficient energy use:2

article: Efficient energy use

evidence: Installing LED lighting, fluorescent lighting, or natural skylight windows reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to using traditional incandescent light bulbs.

article: Headlamp

evidence: Intelligent Light System is a headlamp beam control system introduced in 2006 on the Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W211) which offers five different bi-xenon light functions, each of which is suited to typical driving or weather conditions: Country mode Motorway mode Enhanced fog lamps Active light function (Advanced front-lighting system (AFS)) Cornering light function Adaptive Highbeam Assist is Mercedes-Benz' marketing name for a headlight control strategy that continuously automatically tailors the headlamp range so the beam just reaches other vehicles ahead, thus always ensuring maximum possible seeing range without glaring other road users.

evidence_id: LED lamp:269

article: LED lamp

evidence: "Longevity of light bulbs and how to make them last longer".

evidence_id: Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs:309

article: Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs

evidence: "Raising Awareness of Energy Efficient Light Bulbs Pays off in Rwanda".

evidence_id: Series and parallel circuits:8

article: Series and parallel circuits

evidence: Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and a 12-volt automotive battery.


text: “Which is to say that these beans will be eaten by cows, and the cows will convert the beans to meat, and the humans will eat the meat.

evidence_id: Buffalo meat:25

article: Buffalo meat

evidence: Buffalo are generally fed on coarse feeds; they convert them into the protein-rich lean meat.

article: Meat

evidence: conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.

article: Veganism

evidence: To obtain milk from dairy cattle, cows are made pregnant to induce lactation; they are kept lactating for three to seven years, then slaughtered.

article: Vegetarianism

evidence: are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).

evidence_id: Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows:4

evidence: Carnivores require meat in their diet for survival, but carnists choose to eat meat based on their beliefs.


text: In the process, the cows will emit much greenhouse gas, and they will consume far more calories in beans than they will yield in meat, meaning far more clearcutting of forests to farm cattle feed than would be necessary if the beans above were simply eaten by people.”

article: Agriculture

evidence: Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use.

article: Beef

evidence: A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009.

article: Livestock

evidence: The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has estimated that agriculture (including not only livestock, but also food crop, biofuel and other production) accounted for about 10 to 12 percent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2005 and in 2010.Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day, that accounts for from 35 to 40% of the overall methane emissions of the planet.

article: Milk

evidence: Compared to plant milks, cow's milk requires the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air pollution, and water pollution.

article: Vegetarianism

evidence: In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases.


text: When the heat buildup in the ocean is taken into account, global temperatures are rising relentlessly.

evidence_id: Global warming:0

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:26

article: Global warming

evidence: Although the most common measure of global warming is the increase in the near-surface atmospheric temperature, over 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system over the last 50 years has warmed ocean water.

evidence_id: Global warming:29

article: Global warming

evidence: Further examples include sea level rise, widespread melting of snow and land ice, increased heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, and the earlier timing of spring events, such as the flowering of plants.

evidence_id: Global warming:31

article: Global warming

evidence: Since the pre-industrial period, global average land temperatures have increased almost twice as fast as global average temperatures.


text: “The arc of global warming will be variously steep and less steep,’ said Richard Seager, a climate scientist at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University.

evidence_id: Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory:0

article: Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory

evidence: The Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) is a research unit of Columbia University located on a 157-acre (64 ha) campus in Palisades, N.Y., 18 miles (29 km) north of Manhattan on the Hudson River.

evidence_id: Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory:8

article: Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory

evidence: The Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University is one of the world's leading research centers developing fundamental knowledge about the origin, evolution and future of the natural world.

article: Megadrought

evidence: Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University.

evidence_id: Sean Solomon:0

article: Sean Solomon

evidence: Sean Carl Solomon (born October 24,1945) is the director of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, where he is also the William B. Ransford Professor of Earth and Planetary Science.

evidence_id: Wallace Smith Broecker:1

article: Wallace Smith Broecker

evidence: He was the Newberry Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University, a scientist at Columbia's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and a sustainability fellow at Arizona State University.


text: The heat extremes were especially pervasive in the Arctic, with temperatures in the fall running 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit above normal across large stretches of the Arctic Ocean.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:131

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Play media Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciation, the Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:147

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: As recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:6

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 4,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade (from 1979 to 2013), dominated by a later autumn freeze-up.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:8

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The Arctic Ocean is the mass of water positioned approximately above latitude 65° N. Arctic Sea Ice refers to the area of the Arctic Ocean covered by ice.

evidence_id: Global warming:11

article: Global warming

evidence: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.


text: “We indicated 23 years ago — in our 1994 Nature article — that climate models had the atmosphere’s sensitivity to CO2 much too high,” Christy said in a statement.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:51

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The sensitivity of temperature to atmospheric gasses, most notably CO 2, is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:53

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO 2 was doubled.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:58

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:207

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: As defined by the IPCC, climate sensitivity is the "equilibrium temperature rise that would occur for a doubling of CO 2 concentration above pre-industrial levels".

evidence_id: James Hansen:126

article: James Hansen

evidence: They did note that the agreement between the observations and the intermediate scenario was accidental because the climate sensitivity used was higher than current estimates.


text: Models are too sensitive to increases in carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, he said.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:0

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity is the globally averaged temperature change in response to changes in radiative forcing, which can occur, for instance, due to increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:118

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate models of earth, for example the Coupled model intercomparison project (CMIP), are used to simulate the quantity of warming that will occur with rising CO 2 concentrations.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:48

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The more sensitive a climate system is to increased greenhouse gases, the more likely it is to have decades when temperatures are much higher or much lower than the longer-term average.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:6

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) is the temperature increase that would result from sustained doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, after the Earth's energy budget and the climate system reach radiative equilibrium.


text: climate models predict too much warming in the troposphere

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:109

evidence: Some models show more warming in the troposphere than at the surface, while a slightly smaller number of simulations show the opposite behavior.

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:114

evidence: While the satellite data now show global warming, there is still some difference between what climate models predict and what the satellite data show for warming of the lower troposphere, with the climate models predicting slightly more warming than what the satellites measure.

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:96

evidence: Climate models predict that as the surface warms, so should the global troposphere.

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:97

evidence: Globally, the troposphere (at the TLT altitude at which the MSU sounder measure) is predicted to warm about 1.2 times more than the surface; in the tropics, the troposphere should warm about 1.5 times more than the surface.

evidence_id: The Great Global Warming Swindle:26

article: The Great Global Warming Swindle

evidence: The programme states that all models of greenhouse effect-derived temperature increase predict that the warming will be at its greatest for a given location in the troposphere and at its lowest near the surface of the earth.


text: While many scientists have acknowledged the mismatch between model predictions and actual temperature observations, few have really challenged the validity of the models themselves.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:231

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A 2007 study by David Douglass and coworkers, concluded that the 22 most commonly used global climate models used by the IPCC were unable to accurately predict accelerated warming in the troposphere although they did match actual surface warming, concluding "projections of future climate based on these models should be viewed with much caution".

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:232

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: This result went against a similar study of 19 models which found that discrepancies between model predictions and actual temperature were likely due to measurement errors.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:242

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Certain scientists, skeptics and otherwise, believe this confidence in the models' ability to predict future climate is not earned.

evidence_id: Machine learning:60

article: Machine learning

evidence: Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).

article: Physics

evidence: To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.


text: A recent study led by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory climate scientist Ben Santer found that while the models ran hot, the ‘overestimation’ was ‘partly due to systematic deficiencies in some of the post-2000 external forcings used in the model simulations.’

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Global warming controversy

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:189

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: In 2007, a nuclear winter study, noted that modern computer models have been applied to the Kuwait oil fires, finding that individual smoke plumes are not able to loft smoke into the stratosphere, but that smoke from fires covering a large area[quantify] like some forest fires can lift smoke[quantify] into the stratosphere, and recent evidence suggests that this occurs far more often than previously thought.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:202

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: A study published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in July 2007, titled "Nuclear winter revisited with a modern climate model and current nuclear arsenals: Still catastrophic consequences", used current climate models to look at the consequences of a global nuclear war involving most or all of the world's current nuclear arsenals (which the authors judged to be one similar to the size of the world's arsenals twenty years earlier).

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:226

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: While the highly popularized initial 1983 TTAPS 1-dimensional model forecasts were widely reported and criticized in the media, in part because every later model predicts far less of its "apocalyptic" level of cooling, most models continue to suggest that some deleterious global cooling would still result, under the assumption that a large number of fires occurred in the spring or summer.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:46

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: While it is believed that the modeled climate-cooling-effects from the mass of soot injected into the stratosphere by 100 firestorms (one to five teragrams) would have been detectable with technical instruments in WWII, five percent of that would not have been possible to observe at that time.


text: While volcanic eruptions are natural events, it was the timing of these that had such a noticeable effect on the trend

evidence_id: 1257 Samalas eruption:144

article: 1257 Samalas eruption

evidence: The Little Ice Age was a period of several centuries during the last millennium during which global temperatures were depressed; the cooling was associated with volcanic eruptions.

evidence_id: Natural disaster:18

article: Natural disaster

evidence: The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or falling rocks.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:329

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: Similar climatic effects to "nuclear winter" followed historical supervolcano eruptions, which plumed sulfate aerosols high into the stratosphere, with this being known as a volcanic winter.

article: Volcanism

evidence: The amount of gas and ash emitted by volcanic eruptions has a significant effect on the Earth's climate.

article: Volcano

evidence: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer" because of the effect on North American and European weather.


text: “‘Those eruptions happened relatively early in our study period, which pushed down temperatures in the first part of the dataset, which caused the overall record to show an exaggerated warming trend,’ Christy said.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:196

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend.

evidence_id: John Christy:17

article: John Christy

evidence: This was once quite controversial: From the beginning of the satellite record in late 1978 into 1998 it showed a net global cooling trend, although ground measurements and instruments carried aloft by balloons showed warming in many areas.

evidence_id: John Christy:18

article: John Christy

evidence: Part of the cooling trend seen by the satellites can be attributed to several years of cooler than normal temperatures and cooling caused by the eruption of the Mount Pinatubo volcano.

evidence_id: John Christy:20

article: John Christy

evidence: Since the data correction of August 1998 (and the major La Niña Pacific Ocean warming event of the same year), data collected by satellite instruments has shown an average global warming trend in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: John Christy:21

article: John Christy

evidence: From November 1978 through March 2011, Earth's atmosphere has warmed at an average rate of about 0.14 C per decade, according to the UAHuntsville satellite record.


text: ‘While volcanic eruptions are natural events, it was the timing of these that had such a noticeable effect on the trend.

article: 1257 Samalas eruption

evidence_id: 1257 Samalas eruption:94

article: 1257 Samalas eruption

evidence: The deposits showed that climate disturbances reported at that time were due to a volcanic event, the global spread indicating a tropical volcano as the cause.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):101

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Small eruptions, with injections of less than 0.1 Mt of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, affect the atmosphere only subtly, as temperature changes are comparable with natural variability.

article: Volcanism

article: Volcano


text: If the same eruptions had happened near the more recent end of the dataset, they could have pushed the overall trend into negative numbers, or a long-term cooling,’ Christy said.”

evidence_id: Global cooling:26

article: Global cooling

evidence: Climatic oscillations at higher frequencies are not predicted... the results indicate that the long-term trend over the next 20,000 years is towards extensive Northern Hemisphere glaciation and cooler climate".

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:37

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: They used computer simulations of future climate to show that it was "possible, and indeed likely, to have a period as long as a decade or two of 'cooling' or no warming superimposed on a longer-term warming trend."

article: John Christy

article: Phanerozoic

evidence: The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue into the Cenozoic Era.

evidence_id: Satellite temperature measurements:40

article: Satellite temperature measurements

evidence: The long term cooling in the lower stratosphere occurred in two downward steps in temperature both after the transient warming related to explosive volcanic eruptions of El Chichón and Mount Pinatubo, this behavior of the global stratospheric temperature has been attributed to global ozone concentration variation in the two years following volcanic eruptions.


text: policies based on previous climate model output and predictions might need to be reconsidered

evidence_id: General circulation model:38

article: General circulation model

evidence: These models are the basis for model predictions of future climate, such as are discussed by the IPCC.

evidence_id: General circulation model:5

article: General circulation model

evidence: GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting, understanding the climate, and forecasting climate change.

evidence_id: Global warming:143

article: Global warming

evidence: The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes".

article: Science

evidence: For example, it is used in quantitative scientific modeling, which can generate new hypotheses and predictions to be tested.

evidence_id: Sensitivity analysis:278

article: Sensitivity analysis

evidence: Effective Groundwater Model Calibration, with Analysis of Data, Sensitivities, Predictions, and Uncertainty.


text: Before human burning of fossil fuels triggered global warming, the continent’s ice was in relative balance

article: Antarctica

evidence: The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be slightly positive (lowering sea level) or near to balance.

article: Coal

evidence: The largest and most long term effect of coal use is the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that causes climate change and global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:3

article: Global warming

evidence: But, more accurately, global warming is the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, while climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.

evidence_id: Ice age:178

article: Ice age

evidence: The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the Pleistocene Ice Age.

evidence_id: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum:618

article: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

evidence: "Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a mechanism for initial Eocene global warming".


text: With marine ice cliff instability, sea-level rise for the next century is potentially much larger than we thought it might be five or 10 years ago

evidence_id: Global warming:147

article: Global warming

evidence: Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects that in a very high emissions scenario the sea level could rise by 61–110 cm.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:163

article: Sea level rise

evidence: For instance, a 2016 study led by Jim Hansen concluded that based on past climate change data, sea level rise could accelerate exponentially in the coming decades, with a doubling time of 10, 20 or 40 years, respectively, raising the ocean by several meters in 50, 100 or 200 years.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:167

article: Sea level rise

evidence: According to the Fourth (2017) National Climate Assessment (NCA) of the United States it is very likely sea level will rise between 30 and 130 cm (1.0–4.3 feet) in 2100 compared to the year 2000.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:171

article: Sea level rise

evidence: For instance, Mercer published a study in 1978 predicting that anthropogenic carbon dioxide warming and its potential effects on climate in the 21st century could cause a sea level rise of around 5 metres (16 ft) from melting of the West Antarctic ice-sheet alone.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:9

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A number of later studies have concluded that a global sea level rise of 200 to 270 cm (6.6 to 8.9 ft) this century is "physically plausible".


text: “Instead of a three-foot increase in ocean levels by the end of the century, six feet was more likely, according to DeConto and Pollard’s findings.

claim_label: DISPUTED

article: Antarctica

evidence: If the sheet were to break down, ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries.

evidence_id: Lake Tahoe:237

article: Lake Tahoe

evidence: Historically, the clarity of Lake Tahoe continued to decrease through 2010, when the average Secchi depth, 64.4 feet (19.6 m), was the second lowest ever recorded (the lowest was 64.1 feet (19.5 m) in 1997).

article: Miami

evidence: Beginning some 130,000 years ago, the Sangamonian Stage raised sea levels to approximately 25 feet (8 m) above the current level.

article: Miami

evidence: By 15,000 years ago, the sea level had dropped 300 to 350 feet (90 to 110 m) below the current level.

evidence_id: River Thames:66

article: River Thames

evidence: Combined, this and other studies suggest that the Thames sea-level has risen more than 30 m during the Holocene at a rate of around 5–6 mm per year from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago.


text: Pollard and DeConto are the first to admit that their model is still crude, but its results have pushed the entire scientific community into emergency mode.

article: Science

evidence: In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested, based on observable phenomena.

evidence_id: Scientific method:124

article: Scientific method

evidence: Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.

evidence_id: Scientific method:279

article: Scientific method

evidence: Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.

evidence_id: Scientific method:598

article: Scientific method

evidence: One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model.

evidence_id: Scientific method:623

article: Scientific method

evidence: In essence it is a process of accelerated and rigorous trial and error building on previous knowledge to refine an existing hypothesis, or discarding it altogether to find a better model.


text: Scientists used to think that ice sheets could take millennia to respond to changing climates

article: Climatology

evidence: While scientists knew of past climate change such as the ice ages, the concept of climate as unchanging was useful in the development of a general theory of what determines climate.

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:100

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: They offered a conclusion that the "coupling between surface melting and ice-sheet flow provides a mechanism for rapid, large-scale, dynamic responses of ice sheets to climate warming".

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:53

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: An ice sheet response time of centuries seems probable, and we cannot rule out large changes on decadal time-scales once wide-scale surface melt is underway."

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:16

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Its conclusions are summarized below: "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia."

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:671

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: There is growing evidence that our climate is changing.


text: “‘If you remove the ice shelf, there’s a potential that not just ice-cliff instabilities will start occurring, but a process called marine ice-sheet instabilities,’ says Matthew Wise, a polar scientist at the University of Cambridge.

article: Antarctica

evidence: Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:108

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Secondly, melting of the ice shelves, the floating extensions of the ice sheet, leads to a process named the Marine Ice Cliff Instability.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:545

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Potential Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat driven by hydrofracturing and ice cliff failure".

evidence_id: West Antarctic Ice Sheet:1

article: West Antarctic Ice Sheet

evidence: The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves.

evidence_id: West Antarctic Ice Sheet:36

article: West Antarctic Ice Sheet

evidence: They proposed that changes in air circulation patterns have led to increased upwelling of warm, deep ocean water along the coast of Antarctica and that this warm water has increased melting of floating ice shelves at the edge of the ice sheet.


text: A fast transition away from fossil fuels in the next few decades could be enough to put off rapid sea-level rise for centuries.

evidence_id: Global warming:1282

article: Global warming

evidence: "The rate of sea-level rise".

evidence_id: Global warming:147

article: Global warming

evidence: Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects that in a very high emissions scenario the sea level could rise by 61–110 cm.

evidence_id: Global warming:166

article: Global warming

evidence: Sea level rise will continue over many centuries.

evidence_id: Nuclear power:399

article: Nuclear power

evidence: Slowing global warming requires a transition to a low-carbon economy, mainly by burning far less fossil fuel.

evidence_id: Sustainable energy:41

article: Sustainable energy

evidence: The pathways that are consistent with limiting warning to approximately 1.5 °C describe a rapid transition towards producing electricity through lower-emission methods, and increasing use of electricity instead of other fuels in sectors such as transportation.


text: The sea was much colder than previously thought, the study suggests, indicating that climate change is advancing at an unprecedented rate”

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:13

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The authors conclude that "anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases have led to unprecedented regional warmth."

evidence_id: Global warming:463

article: Global warming

evidence: This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:296

evidence: Another example of scientific research which suggests that previous estimates by the IPCC, far from overstating dangers and risks, have actually understated them is a study on projected rises in sea levels.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:107

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The statement references the IPCC's Fourth Assessment of 2007, and asserts that "climate change is happening even faster than previously estimated; global CO 2 emissions since 2000 have been higher than even the highest predictions, Arctic sea ice has been melting at rates much faster than predicted, and the rise in the sea level has become more rapid".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:35

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The report's Summary for Policymakers stated that warming of the climate system is 'unequivocal' with changes unprecedented over decades to millennia, including warming of the atmosphere and oceans, loss of snow and ice, and sea level rise.


text: But the new research shows that the amount of oxygen in those shells doesn’t actually remain constant over time.

evidence_id: Europa (moon):155

article: Europa (moon)

evidence: Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a thin atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen (O2), and some water vapor.

article: Oxygen

evidence: Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine the climate millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle).

article: Oxygen

evidence: Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples as old as hundreds of thousands of years.

evidence_id: Radiocarbon dating:124

article: Radiocarbon dating

evidence: The effect also applies to marine organisms such as shells, and marine mammals such as whales and seals, which have radiocarbon ages that appear to be hundreds of years old.

evidence_id: Radiocarbon dating:135

article: Radiocarbon dating

evidence: The effect varies greatly and there is no general offset that can be applied; additional research is usually needed to determine the size of the offset, for example by comparing the radiocarbon age of deposited freshwater shells with associated organic material.


text: The new research showed that [oxygen isotopes in foraminifera] can change

article: Pleistocene

evidence: Such a pattern seems to fit the information on climate change found in oxygen isotope cores.

evidence_id: Proxy (climate):108

article: Proxy (climate)

evidence: As of 2018[update], there is a decade of research demonstrating that in mineral soils the degree of methylation of bacteria (brGDGTs), helps to calculate mean annual air temperatures.

evidence_id: Radiocarbon dating:19

article: Radiocarbon dating

evidence: In 1939, Martin Kamen and Samuel Ruben of the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half-lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research.

article: Speleothem

evidence: Stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) are recorded well in speleothems, giving high-resolution data that can show annual variation in temperature (oxygen isotopes primarily reflect rainfall temperature) and precipitation (carbon isotopes primarily reflect C3/C4 plant composition and plant productivity, but the interpretation is often complicated).

article: Speleothem

evidence: "Cryogenic cave calcite from several Central European caves: age, carbon and oxygen isotopes and a genetic model".


text: The changes in the amount of oxygen in the shells isn’t a reflection of changing temperatures – just a consequence of the fact that the amount of oxygen seen changes over time anyway.

evidence_id: Common octopus:153

article: Common octopus

evidence: Variations in temperature can also induce a change in hemolymph protein levels along oxygen consumption.

evidence_id: Common octopus:157

article: Common octopus

evidence: The slight rise in P50 that occurs with temperature change allows oxygen pressure to remain high in the capillaries, allowing for elevated diffusion of oxygen into the mitochondria during periods of high oxygen consumption.

evidence_id: Common octopus:33

article: Common octopus

evidence: In moving vertically throughout the water, the octopus is subjected to various pressures and temperatures, which affect the concentration of oxygen available in the water.

evidence_id: Human impact on marine life:118

article: Human impact on marine life

evidence: This means the density of ocean water changes as its temperature and salinity changes.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known.


text: “To revisit the ocean’s paleotemperatures now, we need to carefully quantify this re-equilibration, which has been overlooked for too long.

article: Paleothermometer

evidence: The calibration was initially done on the basis of spatial variations in temperature and it was assumed that this corresponded to temporal variations (Jouzel and Merlivat, 1984).

article: Paleothermometer

evidence: Mg has a long residence time in the ocean, and so it is possible to largely ignore the effect of changes in seawater Mg/Ca on the signal.

article: Paleothermometer

evidence: Temperature has been estimated (to varying degrees of fidelity) using leaf physiognomy for Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic leaf floras, principally using two main approaches: A univariate approach that is based on the observation that the proportion of woody dicot species with smooth (i.e.

article: Paleothermometer

evidence: The major influence on δ18O is the difference between ocean temperatures where the moisture evaporated and the place where the final precipitation occurred; since ocean temperatures are relatively stable the δ18O value mostly reflects the temperature where precipitation occurs.

evidence_id: We Belong Together:125

article: We Belong Together

evidence: Styles P raps "Past is the past, just let it be bygones / Matter of fact I know a fly song that we could vibe on", which Sanneh writes "Cheerfully out of place, he sounds like a man who has wandered into the wrong summertime party, but so what?


text: For that, we have to work on other types of marine organisms so that we clearly understand what took place in the sediment over geological time”

article: Geobiology

evidence: While there are many aspects of studying past and present interactions between life and Earth that are unclear, several important ideas and concepts provide a basis of knowledge in geobiology that serve as a platform for posing researchable questions, including the evolution of life and planet and the co-evolution of the two, genetics - from both a historical and functional standpoint, the metabolic diversity of all life, the sedimentological preservation of past life, and the origin of life.

article: Geology

evidence: These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the depositional environment in which the rock units formed.

article: Geology

evidence: Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).

article: Paleontology

evidence: It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology).

article: Paleontology

evidence: Biostratigraphy, the use of fossils to work out the chronological order in which rocks were formed, is useful to both paleontologists and geologists.


text: Global human emissions are only 3 per cent of total annual emissions.

article: Agriculture

evidence: It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents.

article: Agriculture

evidence: Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:6

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% of global annual emissions in 2010.

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:333

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:388

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases.


text: The past shows that climate change is normal, that warmer times and more atmospheric carbon dioxide have driven biodiversity and that cold times kill.”

evidence_id: Anoxic event:65

article: Anoxic event

evidence: The trigger for these mass extinctions appears to be a warming of the ocean caused by a rise of carbon dioxide levels to about 1000 parts per million.

article: Biodiversity

evidence: Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but, mercifully, the major impacts that have been predicted are still potential futures.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:63

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming on human health:306

evidence: Historically, cold temperatures at night and in the winter months would kill off insects, bacteria and fungi.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation, specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery and current global warming.


text: “The worldwide temperature record has been changed.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:58

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:61

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: According to the historical temperature record of the last century, the Earth's near-surface air temperature has risen around 0.74 ± 0.18 °Celsius (1.3 ± 0.32 °Fahrenheit).

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:72

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0.65 °C (1.17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record).

evidence_id: Global warming:1459

article: Global warming

evidence: "Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period".

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:35

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: An examination of the average global temperature changes by decades reveals continuing climate change, and AR5 reports "Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's surface than any preceding decade since 1850 (see Figure SPM.1).


text: [South Australia] has the most expensive electricity in the world.

article: Adelaide

evidence: [citation needed] South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.

evidence_id: Energy in South Australia:269

article: Energy in South Australia

evidence: "South Australia has the highest power prices in the world".

evidence_id: Energy in South Australia:91

article: Energy in South Australia

evidence: It was claimed in 2017 that South Australia had the most expensive electricity in the world Another analysis claimed that South Australia has the second cheapest electricity in Australia.

evidence_id: South Australia:95

article: South Australia

evidence: Renewable energy is a growing source of electricity in South Australia, and there is potential for growth from this particular industry of the state's economy.

evidence_id: South Australia:97

article: South Australia

evidence: At the time of construction in late 2017, it was billed as the largest lithium-ion battery in the world.


text: [Those who signed the Paris Accord] cannot change Earth’s orbit and radiation released from the sun that drive climate

article: Climate

evidence: Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy as solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.

article: Earth

evidence: The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.

evidence_id: Future of Earth:79

article: Future of Earth

evidence: These changes can influence the planetary climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:48

article: Global warming

evidence: increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

article: Sun

evidence: The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather.


text: Australia’s signed a suicide note [with the Paris Accord] yet didn’t seem to notice that China, India, Indonesia and the US did not commit to reducing their large carbon dioxide emissions.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:352

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: Countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

evidence_id: Energy policy of China:24

article: Energy policy of China

evidence: The plan did not include targets for carbon dioxide emission reductions, but it has been estimated that, if fully implemented, China's annual emissions of greenhouse gases would be reduced by 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by 2010.

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:12

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: This strategy involved energy and climate policy including the so-called 20/20/20 targets, namely the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 20%, the increase of renewable energy's market share to 20%, and a 20% increase in energy efficiency.

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:168

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: Institutional asset owners associations and think-tanks have also observed that the stated objectives of the Paris Agreement are implicitly "predicated upon an assumption – that member states of the United Nations, including high polluters such as China, the US, India, Russia, Japan, Germany, South Korea, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Indonesia and Mexico, which generate more than half the world's greenhouse gas emissions, will somehow drive down their carbon pollution voluntarily and assiduously without any binding enforcement mechanism to measure and control CO 2 emissions at any level from factory to state, and without any specific penalty gradation or fiscal pressure (for example a carbon tax) to discourage bad behaviour."

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:240

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: "U.S. and China announce steps to join the Paris accord that set nation-by-nation targets for cutting carbon emissions".


text: The grasslands, crops, forests and territorial waters of Australia absorb more carbon dioxide than Australia emits.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:231

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.

evidence_id: Carbon sink:10

article: Carbon sink

evidence: It is estimated that forests absorb between 10 and 20 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year, through photosynthetic conversion into starch, cellulose, lignin, and other components of wooden biomass.

article: Reforestation

evidence: Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.

article: Reforestation

evidence: They absorb a huge amount of carbon dioxide, combating climate change.

article: Wetland

evidence: It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere.


text: [Riebesell] is a world authority on the topic and has typically communicated cautiously about the effects of acidification.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming on human health:339

evidence: Perhaps one of the most recent adverse effects of climate change to be explored is that of ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Global warming:362

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".

evidence_id: Human impact on marine life:128

article: Human impact on marine life

evidence: The direction and magnitude of the effects of ocean acidification, warming and deoxygenation on the ocean has been quantified by meta-analyses, and has been further tested by mesocosm studies.

evidence_id: Human impact on marine life:561

article: Human impact on marine life

evidence: (2013) "Meta‐analysis reveals complex marine biological responses to the interactive effects of ocean acidification and warming".

article: Sea

evidence: Both are informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of seawater.


text: ‘But even if an organism isn’t directly harmed by acidification it may be affected indirectly through changes in its habitat or changes in the food web.’

evidence_id: Environmental impact of the coal industry:87

evidence: The presence of acid-forming materials exposed as a result of surface mining can affect wildlife by eliminating habitat and by causing direct destruction of some species.

evidence_id: Human impact on marine life:99

article: Human impact on marine life

evidence: These large-scale alterations in the physical environment are "driving change through all levels of Antarctic marine food webs".

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:139

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Aside from the slowing and/or reversing of calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects, either indirectly through negative impacts on food resources, or directly as reproductive or physiological effects.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:175

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Other organisms are directly harmed as a result of acidification.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:57

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats.


text: And some plants – like algae which use carbon for photosynthesis – may even benefit.

article: Algae

evidence: Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy.

article: Botany

evidence: Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:232

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and (cyanobacteria) into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose, thus creating their own food by photosynthesis.

article: Cyanobacteria

evidence: Cyanobacteria use the energy of sunlight to drive photosynthesis, a process where the energy of light is used to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide.

article: Plant

evidence: Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce food by photosynthesis and thus have traditionally been included in the plant kingdom.


text: […]You can think of global warming as one type of climate change.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):18

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: The term "climate change" is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change (also known as global warming).

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):20

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term climate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):216

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming."

evidence_id: Global warming:246

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate engineering (sometimes called geoengineering or climate intervention) is the deliberate modification of the climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:709

article: Global warming

evidence: NASA's Global Climate Change.


text: The broader term covers changes beyond warmer temperatures, such as shifting rainfall patterns.”

evidence_id: Global warming:3

article: Global warming

evidence: But, more accurately, global warming is the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, while climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".

evidence_id: Global warming:9

article: Global warming

evidence: The effects of global warming include rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, and expansion of deserts.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:721

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: This could lead to changing, and for all emissions scenarios more unpredictable, weather patterns around the world, less frost days, more extreme events (droughts and storm or flood disasters), and warmer sea temperatures and melting glaciers causing sea levels to rise.

evidence_id: Tropical rainforest:66

article: Tropical rainforest

evidence: In general, climatic patterns consist of warm temperatures and high annual rainfall.


text: “We’ve known about [the greenhouse effect] for more than a century.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:112

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Scientists have known for over a century that even this small proportion has a significant warming effect, and doubling the proportion leads to a large temperature increase.

evidence_id: Global warming:317

article: Global warming

evidence: In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, showing that halving of CO 2 could have produced the drop in temperature initiating the ice age.

evidence_id: Global warming:328

article: Global warming

evidence: This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in The Hammond Times which described Roger Revelle's research into the effects of increasing human-caused CO 2 emissions on the greenhouse effect: "a large scale global warming, with radical climate changes may result".

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:54

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.

evidence_id: History of the world:540

article: History of the world

evidence: The "greenhouse effect", substantially responsible for Earth's global warming, was first described in 1824 by the French mathematician Joseph Fourier.


text: [CO2] has increased 43 percent above the pre-industrial level so far

evidence_id: Global warming:60

article: Global warming

evidence: As of 2011, the concentrations of CO2 and methane had increased by about 40% and 150%, respectively, since pre-industrial times.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:111

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:115

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: For example, the mole fraction of carbon dioxide has increased from 280 ppm to 415 ppm, or 120 ppm over modern pre-industrial levels.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:118

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: In the 1960s, the average annual increase was only 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:127

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.


text: Geologists say that humans are now pumping the gas into the air much faster than nature has ever done.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:11

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: CO 2 is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:74

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide can be obtained by distillation from air, but the method is inefficient.

evidence_id: Global warming:43

article: Global warming

evidence: The slower pace of warming can be attributed to a combination of natural fluctuations, reduced solar activity, and increased volcanic activity.

evidence_id: Global warming:59

article: Global warming

evidence: Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide.

article: Nature

evidence: Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.


text: The warming is extremely rapid on the geologic time scale, and no other factor can explain it as well as human emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:21

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:55

article: Global warming

evidence: Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Ice age:147

article: Ice age

evidence: There is considerable evidence that over the very recent period of the last 100–1000 years, the sharp increases in human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, has caused the parallel sharp and accelerating increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases which trap the sun's heat.


text: Instead of negotiating over climate change policies and trying to make them more market-oriented, some political conservatives have taken the approach of blocking them by trying to undermine the science.

evidence_id: Conservatism in the United States:238

article: Conservatism in the United States

evidence: On the other hand, some conservatives tend to oppose free-market trade policies and support protectionism instead.

evidence_id: Conservatism in the United States:287

article: Conservatism in the United States

evidence: Conservative think tanks since the 1990s have opposed the concept of man-made global warming; challenged scientific evidence; publicized what they perceived as beneficial aspects of global warming, and asserted that proposed remedies would do more harm than good.

evidence_id: Conservative Party (UK):334

article: Conservative Party (UK)

evidence: Some Conservative politicians such as Alan Duncan and Crispin Blunt take the libertarian approach that individual freedom and economic freedom of industry and trade should be respected.

evidence_id: Framing (social sciences):228

article: Framing (social sciences)

evidence: Neoliberal frameworks that are often echoed by conservatives, such as support for the free market economy, are posited against climate action interventions that inherently place constraints on the free economy through support for renewable energy through subsidies or through additional tax on nonrenewable sources of energy.

evidence_id: Republican Party (United States):177

article: Republican Party (United States)

evidence: Since then, Republicans have increasingly taken positions against environmental regulation, with some Republicans rejecting the scientific consensus on climate change.


text: Over the coming 25 or 30 years, scientists say, the climate is likely to gradually warm

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:136

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Most of the climatic warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:4

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The current scientific consensus is that: Earth's climate has warmed significantly since the late 1800s.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:507

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Since the start of the 20th century, the global mean surface temperature of the Earth has increased by more than 0.7°C and the rate of warming has been largest in the last 30 years.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:69

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The global warming observed over the past 50 years is due primarily to human-induced emissions of heat-trapping gases.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:74

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Over the past 30 years, temperatures have risen faster in winter than in any other season, with average winter temperatures in the Midwest and northern Great Plains increasing more than 7 °F (3.9 °C).


text: “Scientists have published strong evidence that the warming climate is making heat waves more frequent and intense.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:46

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: A report released in March 2012 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirmed that a strong body of evidence links global warming to an increase in heat waves, a rise in episodes of heavy rainfall and other precipitation, and more frequent coastal flooding.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:86

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: In the last 30–40 years, heat waves with high humidity have become more frequent and severe.

evidence_id: Global warming:123

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change also increases droughts and heat waves that inhibit plant growth, which makes it uncertain whether this balancing feedback will persist in the future.

evidence_id: Global warming:156

article: Global warming

evidence: Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.

evidence_id: Heat wave:160

article: Heat wave

evidence: "More Intense, More Frequent, and Longer Lasting Heat Waves in the 21st Century".


text: In many other cases, though — hurricanes, for example — the linkage to global warming for particular trends is uncertain or disputed.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:113

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Human activity is likely to have made a substantial contribution to ocean surface temperature changes in hurricane formation regions.

evidence_id: Global warming:173

article: Global warming

evidence: In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, as well as poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:202

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change has been linked to an increase in violent conflict by amplifying poverty and economic shocks, which are well-documented drivers of these conflicts.

evidence_id: Global warming:294

article: Global warming

evidence: Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is weak.

evidence_id: Regional effects of global warming:0

article: Regional effects of global warming

evidence: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming.


text: The warming will slow to a potentially manageable pace only when human emissions are reduced to zero.

evidence_id: Global warming:212

article: Global warming

evidence: Successful adaptation is easier if there are substantial emission reductions.

evidence_id: Global warming:214

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change can be mitigated through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions or the enhancement of the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:221

article: Global warming

evidence: In some scenarios emissions continue to rise over the century, while others have reduced emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming:227

article: Global warming

evidence: To keep warming below 2 °C, more stringent emission reductions in the near-term would allow for less rapid reductions after 2030.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:190

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Avoiding this future warming will require a large and rapid reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions.


text: But experts say the energy transition needs to speed up drastically to head off the worst effects of climate change.

evidence_id: Abrupt climate change:0

article: Abrupt climate change

evidence: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance, and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:122

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Further global climate changes are predicted, with impacts expected to become more costly as time progresses.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:160

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: It is clear that major efforts are necessary to quickly and strongly reduce CO 2 emissions.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:41

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The stronger our efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the lower the risk of extreme climate impacts.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:6

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Continuing emissions will increase the likelihood and severity of global effects.


text: Converting to these cleaner sources [of energy] may be somewhat costlier in the short term, but they could ultimately pay for themselves by heading off climate damages and reducing health problems associated with dirty air.

evidence_id: Air pollution:287

article: Air pollution

evidence: Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to electric vehicles.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:18

article: Renewable energy

evidence: As most of renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:209

article: Renewable energy

evidence: The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:25

article: Renewable energy

evidence: It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United States.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:442

article: Renewable energy

evidence: Other renewable sources such as wind power, photovoltaics, and hydroelectricity have the advantage of being able to conserve water, lower pollution and reduce CO 2 emissions.


text: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

evidence_id: Carbon capture and storage:0

article: Carbon capture and storage

evidence: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) (or carbon capture and sequestration or carbon control and sequestration) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide (CO 2) usually from large point sources, such as a cement factory or biomass power plant, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally an underground geological formation.

evidence_id: Carbon capture and storage:268

article: Carbon capture and storage

evidence: The geothermal plant then pumps the carbonated water into rock formations underground where the carbon dioxide reacts with basaltic bedrock and forms carbonite minerals.

evidence_id: Carbon capture and storage:92

article: Carbon capture and storage

evidence: Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:195

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a method to mitigate climate change by capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as power plants and subsequently storing it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Coal pollution mitigation:0

article: Coal pollution mitigation

evidence: Coal pollution mitigation, often called clean coal, is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning (though not the mining or processing) of coal, which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation.


text: Climate Models Have Overestimated Global Warming

article: Climate

evidence: These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:108

article: Global warming

evidence: Uncertainty over feedbacks is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming:141

article: Global warming

evidence: Past models have underestimated the rate of Arctic shrinkage and underestimated the rate of precipitation increase.

evidence_id: Global warming:143

article: Global warming

evidence: The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes".

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:80

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: Lindzen said that predicted warming may be overestimated because of their handling of the climate system's water vapor feedback.


text: the climate models have overestimated the amount of global warming and failed to predict what climatologists call the warming ‘hiatus’

article: Climate

article: Climatology

evidence: These models predict an upward trend in the surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher latitudes.

article: Global warming

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:300

article: Global warming

evidence: Additional disputes concern estimates of climate sensitivity, predictions of additional warming, what the consequences of global warming will be, and what to do about it.


text: The report, published in the journal Nature Geoscience on September 18, acknowledges that most of the models of warming trends failed to predict the ‘slowdown’ in warming post-2000, resulting in less pronounced warming than predicted and thus more room in the CO2 ‘emissions budget’ for the coming decades.

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:12

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: Subsequently, a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing, but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted, and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), which was negative during that period.

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:55

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: A month before formal AR5 publication, a leaked draft of the report noted that "Models do not generally reproduce the observed reduction in surface warming trend over the last 10–15 years", but lacked clear explanations, and attracted wide media coverage.

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:80

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: They used the IPCC definition of the supposed hiatus as a slowdown in rate of temperature increase from 1998 to 2012, compared to the rate from 1951 to 2012, and again found no support for the idea of a "hiatus" or slowdown.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.


text: that likewise determined that the actual increases in warming post-2000 was ‘generally smaller than trends estimated’ from the models.”

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:228

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: The actual increase by 2000 was about 29%.

article: Global warming hiatus

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:87

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: A March 2014 study found that climate models assuming natural variability which matched subsequent observations of ENSO phasing had produced realistic estimates of 15-year trends.

evidence_id: Global warming:7

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.


text: The team of climate scientists notes that in failing to predict the warming ‘hiatus’ in the beginning of the 21st century, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) models overestimated temperature increases…

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:224

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Models referenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict that global temperatures are likely to increase by 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) between 1990 and 2100.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:48

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: The observed increase in hurricane intensity is larger than climate models predict for the sea surface temperature changes we have experienced.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:128

evidence: Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least the last 10,000 years.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:226

evidence: The finished report summarizes the findings of scientists, showing that maintaining a temperature rise to below 1.5 °C remains possible, but only through "rapid and far-reaching transitions in energy, land, urban and infrastructure..., and industrial systems".


text: The answer lies in the summer’s record-breaking heat, say wildfire experts.

evidence_id: 2010 Russian wildfires:19

article: 2010 Russian wildfires

evidence: Such human activity, coupled with the unusually high temperatures over the Russian territories, catalyzed this record disturbance.

evidence_id: 2010 Russian wildfires:2

article: 2010 Russian wildfires

evidence: The fires were associated with record-high temperatures, which were attributed to climate change—the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history—and drought.

evidence_id: 2010 Russian wildfires:5

article: 2010 Russian wildfires

evidence: A combination of the smoke from the fires, producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system.

evidence_id: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season:415

article: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season

evidence: Scientific experts and land management agencies agree that severely below average fuel moisture attributed to record-breaking temperatures and drought, accompanied by severe fire weather, are the primary causes of the 2019-20 Australian bushfire season, and that these are likely to have been exacerbated by long-term trends of warmer and dryer weather observed over the Australian land mass.

evidence_id: Bushfires in Australia:129

article: Bushfires in Australia

evidence: Across the country, the average summer temperatures have increased leading to record-breaking hot weather, with the early summer of 2019 the hottest on record.


text: Days of near-100-degree-Fahrenheit temperatures cooked the Mountain West in early July, and a scorching heat wave lingered over the Pacific Northwest in early August.”

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:340

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: A two-day-long heat wave hit the more rural parts of Texas on July 1.

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:341

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: From July 4 to July 9, 2010, the majority of the American East Coast, from the Carolinas to Maine, was gripped in a severe heat wave.

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:369

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: The heat continued through the second half of July but extreme heat was mostly confined to the Southeastern United States, giving relief to the Northeast and Upper Midwest as it had early in the month.

evidence_id: Cold wave:257

article: Cold wave

evidence: The cold wave was followed by one of the hottest summers on record, the 1936 North American heat wave.

evidence_id: Cold wave:277

article: Cold wave

evidence: 1888 1888 US cold wave – A severe cold wave that passed through the Pacific Northwest.


text: the total area burned in the western United States over the past 33 years was double the size it would have been without any human-caused warming.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:104

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: As a result, since the 1980s, both the size and ferocity of fires in California have increased dramatically.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:105

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Since the 1970s, the size of the area burned has increased fivefold while fifteen of the 20 largest fires in California have occurred since 2000.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:327

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: After about a thousand years, 20% to 30% of human-emitted CO 2 will remain in the atmosphere, not taken up by the ocean or the land, committing the climate to warming long after emissions have stopped.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:45

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: The data shows that recent warming has surpassed anything in the last 2,000 years.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:73

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Over most land areas since the 1950s, it is very likely that at all times of year both days and nights have become warmer due to human activities.


text: In the early 20th century, state and federal governments began aggressively fighting wildfires and trying to keep them as small as possible.

article: California

evidence: As part of the Ring of Fire, California is subject to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, landslides on steep terrain, and has several volcanoes.

article: California

evidence: Over time, drought and wildfires have become more frequent challenges.

article: Maryland

evidence: More than 1,231 firefighters worked to bring the blaze under control.

evidence_id: United States:137

article: United States

evidence: Nonetheless, large-scale conflicts continued throughout the West into the 1900s.

article: Wisconsin

evidence: By the close of the 19th century, intensive agriculture had devastated soil fertility, and lumbering had deforested most of the state.


text: But [climate scientists] say that aspects of the case of Hurricane Harvey—and the recent history of tropical cyclones worldwide—suggest global warming is making a bad situation worse.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:92

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Global warming not only causes changes in tropical cyclones, it may also make some impacts from them worse via sea level rise.

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:1021

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: "It's a fact: climate change made Hurricane Harvey more deadly".

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:292

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: The Gulf of Mexico is known for hurricanes in August, so their incidence alone cannot be attributed to global warming, but the warming climate does influence certain attributes of storms.

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:294

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: Weather events are due to multiple factors, and so cannot be said to be caused by one precondition, but climate change affects aspects of extreme events, and very likely worsened some of the impacts of Harvey.

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:996

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: "Storm Harvey: impacts likely worsened due to global warming".


text: The human contribution can be up to 30 percent or so of the total rainfall coming out of the storm

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:30

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: For 2 °C of warming the fraction of precipitation extremes attributable to human influence rises to about 40%.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:377

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: We show that at the present-day warming of 0.85 °C about 18% of the moderate daily precipitation extremes over land are attributable to the observed temperature increase since pre-industrial times, which in turn primarily results from human influence.

evidence_id: Puerto Rico:406

article: Puerto Rico

evidence: On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño.

evidence_id: Saudi Arabia:427

article: Saudi Arabia

evidence: An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60 percent of the annual precipitation.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:98

article: Urban heat island

evidence: Some cities show a total precipitation increase of 51%.


text: Global Ocean Circulation Appears To Be Collapsing Due To A Warming Planet

article: Climate

evidence: Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling.

article: Eocene

evidence: Isotopes of carbon and oxygen indicate a shift to a global cooling climate.

article: Eocene

evidence: that the Eocene hothouse world was caused by runaway global warming from released methane clathrates deep in the oceans.

evidence_id: Ice age:125

article: Ice age

evidence: Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the global ocean water circulation.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:185

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: There is some concern that a shutdown of thermohaline circulation could happen again as a result of the present warming period.


text: Evidence is growing that the comparatively cold zone within the Northern Atlantic could be due to a slowdown of this global ocean water circulation.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:94

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation.

evidence_id: Global warming:171

article: Global warming

evidence: Another example is the possibility for the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation to slow or shut down (see also shutdown of thermohaline circulation).

article: Ice age

evidence_id: Shutdown of thermohaline circulation:0

article: Shutdown of thermohaline circulation

evidence: A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is a hypothesized effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation.

evidence_id: Thermohaline circulation:75

article: Thermohaline circulation

evidence: The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates at the tip of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean.


text: While geologists have studied events in the past similar to what appears to be happening today, scientists are largely unsure of what lies ahead.

evidence_id: Anoxic event:2

article: Anoxic event

evidence: Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years, the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past.

article: Geologist

evidence: Geochronology: the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events (notably, meteorite impacts).

article: Geologist

evidence: Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events.

article: Geology

evidence: Other scientists perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate.

article: Geology

evidence: In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now."


text: Scientists have long known about the anomalous ‘warming hole‘ in the North Atlantic Ocean, an area immune to warming of Earth’s oceans.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:86

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe.

article: Climate

evidence: Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.

article: Cretaceous

evidence: The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas.

article: Cretaceous

evidence: Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) warmer than today's.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:118

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: In the North Atlantic, sediments accumulated since the end of the last ice age, nearly 12,000 years ago, show regular increases in the amount of coarse sediment grains deposited from icebergs melting in the now open ocean, indicating a series of 1–2 °C (2–4 °F) cooling events recurring every 1,500 years or so.


text: “Carbon dioxide hurts nobody’s health.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:253

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:265

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO 2 exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:267

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: At this CO 2 concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption.

article: Smog

evidence: When inhaled, these particles can settle in the lungs and respiratory tract and cause health problems.

article: Smog

evidence: Smog is a serious problem in many cities and continues to harm human health.


text: Climate change need not endanger anyone”

evidence_id: Climate change and ecosystems:163

article: Climate change and ecosystems

evidence: The species said to be most at risk for endangerment or extinction are populations that are not of conservation concern.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:166

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Given the potential threat to marine ecosystems and its ensuing impact on human society and economy, especially as it acts in conjunction with anthropogenic global warming, there is an urgent need for immediate action."

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:197

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Mitigation will reduce the amount of future climate change and the risk of impacts that are potentially large and dangerous.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:562

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The threats are serious and action is urgently needed to mitigate the risks of climate change.

evidence_id: The Daily Caller:60

article: The Daily Caller

evidence: Other news outlets confirmed Halper's identity but did not report his identity because US intelligence officials warned that it would endanger him and his contacts.


text: “Healthy societies do not fall apart over slow, widely predicted, relatively small economic adjustments of the sort painted by climate analysis.

evidence_id: Economic growth:306

article: Economic growth

evidence: The Stern Review notes that the prediction that, "Under business as usual, global emissions will be sufficient to propel greenhouse gas concentrations to over 550 ppm CO 2 by 2050 and over 650–700 ppm by the end of this century is robust to a wide range of changes in model assumptions."

evidence_id: Low-carbon economy:1

article: Low-carbon economy

evidence: GHG emissions due to anthropogenic (human) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming (climate change) since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Low-carbon economy:20

article: Low-carbon economy

evidence: Estimates from the International Labour Organization’s Global Economic Linkages model suggest that unmitigated climate change, with associated negative impacts on enterprises and workers, will have negative effects on output in many industries, with drops in output of 2.4% by 2030 and 7.2% by 2050.

article: Sustainability

evidence: In 2019, 2 weeks before the elections to the European Parlament, the World Wide Fund for Nature stated that the European Union is unsustainable in his current mode of life and economy and asked him to fix it by "Shift to sustainable consumption and food systems, make Europe climate-neutral by 2040, restore our Nature, protect the Ocean, invest in a sustainable future" At a March 2009 meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council, 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and that without strong carbon reduction "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with".

article: Sustainability

evidence: Several key areas have been targeted for economic analysis and reform: the environmental effects of unconstrained economic growth; the consequences of nature being treated as an economic externality; and the possibility of an economics that takes greater account of the social and environmental consequences of market behavior.