text: A recent study in Nature Geoscience, for instance, called into question whether the Arctic’s melting, and in particular its sea ice loss, has been causing winter cooling over Eurasia, another idea that has been swept up in the debate over the jet stream and weather extremes.”

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:73

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: In a 2017 study conducted by climatologist Dr. Judah Cohen and several of his research associates, Cohen wrote that "[the] shift in polar vortex states can account for most of the recent winter cooling trends over Eurasian midlatitudes".

evidence_id: Global warming:158

article: Global warming

evidence: Various mechanisms have been identified that might explain extreme weather in mid-latitudes from the rapidly warming Arctic, such as the jet stream becoming more erratic.

evidence_id: Polar amplification:40

article: Polar amplification

evidence: Studies published in 2017 and 2018 identified stalling patterns of rossby waves, in the northern hemisphere jet stream, to have caused almost stationary extreme weather events, such as the 2018 European heatwave, the 2003 European heat wave, 2010 Russian heat wave, 2010 Pakistan floods - these events have been linked to global warming, the rapid heating of the Arctic.

evidence_id: Polar amplification:43

article: Polar amplification

evidence: Cold Arctic air intrudes into the warmer lower latitudes more rapidly today during autumn and winter, a trend projected to continue in the future except during summer, thus calling into question whether winters will bring more cold extremes.

evidence_id: Rossby wave:30

article: Rossby wave

evidence: In 2011, a Nature Geoscience study using general circulation models linked Pacific Rossby waves generated by increasing central tropical Pacific temperatures to warming of the Amundsen Sea region, leading to winter and spring continental warming of Ellsworth Land and Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica via an increase in advection.


text: ‘With levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere consistently breaking new records, the influence of human activities on the climate system has become more and more evident,’ said Taalas.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

votes: SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS NOT_ENOUGH_INFO SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Global warming:5

article: Global warming

evidence: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report concluded, "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".

votes: SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:130

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:571

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Because the complexity of the climate makes accurate prediction difficult, the APS urges an enhanced effort to understand the effects of human activity on the Earth's climate, and to provide the technological options for meeting the climate challenge in the near and longer terms.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:692

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


text: ‘Arctic ice conditions have been tracking at record low conditions since October, persisting for six consecutive months’

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:172

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: "Arctic Sea Ice Hits Record Low—Extreme Weather to Come?".

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:23

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: Scientists recently measured sixteen-foot (five-meter) wave heights during a storm in the Beaufort Sea in mid-August until late October 2012.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:245

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: Given the estimated trend and the volume estimate for October–November of 2007 at less than 9,000 km3, one can project that at this rate it would take only 9 more years or until 2016 ± 3 years to reach a nearly ice-free Arctic Ocean in summer.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:31

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The previous record of the lowest area of the Arctic Ocean covered by ice in 2012 saw a low of 1.58 million square miles (4.09 million square kilometers).

article: Methane

evidence: "Arctic sea ice reaches lowest extent for the year and the satellite record" (Press release).


text: “‘The Arctic may be remote, but changes that occur there directly affect us.

article: Arctic

evidence: The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years.

article: Arctic

evidence: Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:119

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: Climate change is having a direct impact on the people that live in the Arctic, as well as other societies around the world.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:211

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: As an island Territory, we are directly and immediately impacted by global climate change.

evidence_id: El Niño:80

article: El Niño

evidence: As a result of this change, Micronesia is more likely to be affected by tropical cyclones, while China has a decreased risk of being affected by tropical cyclones.


text: The melting of the Greenland ice sheet is already contributing significantly to sea level rise, and new research is highlighting that the melting of Arctic sea ice can alter weather conditions across Europe, Asia and North America.’”

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:35

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: The Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record melting in recent years since detailed records have been kept and is likely to contribute substantially to sea level rise as well as to possible changes in ocean circulation in the future if this is sustained.

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:46

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: Ice sheet models project that such a warming would initiate the long-term melting of the ice sheet, leading to a complete melting of the ice sheet (over centuries), resulting in a global sea level rise of about 7 metres (23 ft).

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:56

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: Besides contributing to global sea level rise, the process adds freshwater to the ocean, which may disturb ocean circulation and thus regional climate.

article: Greenland

evidence: The glaciers of Greenland are also contributing to a rise in the global sea level faster than was previously believed.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:128

article: Sea level rise

evidence: There is a threshold in surface warming beyond which a partial or near-complete melting of the Greenland ice sheet occurs.


text: Global sea level rise surged between November 2014 and February 2016, with the El Niño event helping the oceans rise by 15mm.

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:0

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: The 2014–16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line.

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:76

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: As El Niño conditions started to develop during early 2014, sea levels in western Micronesia including in waters surrounding the island nations of Palau and Guam dropped by 6–9 feet (1.8–2.7 m).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:1

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Between 1900 and 2016, the sea level rose by 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:25

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This in turn caused sea-levels to rise 20 metres.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:614

article: Sea level rise

evidence: 18 January 2019.


text: Final data for 2016 sea level rise have yet to be published.

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:141

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: The IPCC's Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere concluded that global mean sea level rose by 0.16 metres between 1901 and 2016.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:143

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Global sea level rise is accelerating, rising 2.5 times faster between 2006 and 2016 than it did during the 20th century.

article: Sea level rise

evidence_id: Sea level rise:2

article: Sea level rise

evidence: More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveal an accelerating rise of 7.5 cm (3.0 in) from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly 30 cm (12 in) per century.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:85

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatons (Gt) per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002, but has accelerated to an average of 220 Gt per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017.


text: Our children and grandchildren will look back on the climate deniers and ask how they could have sacrificed the planet for the sake of cheap fossil fuel energy, when the cost of inaction exceeds the cost of a transition to a low-carbon economy,’ Watson said.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:55

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: At the core of most proposals is the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through reducing energy waste and switching to low-carbon power sources of energy.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:8

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: Examples of mitigation include reducing energy demand by increasing energy efficiency, phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources, and removing carbon dioxide from Earth's atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:62

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Robert Watson found this "very disappointing" and said "We need the public to understand that climate change is serious so they will change their habits and help us move towards a low carbon economy."

evidence_id: Low-carbon economy:28

article: Low-carbon economy

evidence: This would make the technologies more affordable and competitive in the global market, particularly when combined with a phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies.

evidence_id: Low-carbon economy:29

article: Low-carbon economy

evidence: Recent advances in technology and policy will allow renewable energy and energy efficiency to play major roles in displacing fossil fuels, meeting global energy demand while reducing carbon dioxide emissions.


text: An additional kick was supplied by an El Niño weather pattern that peaked in 2016 and temporarily warmed much of the surface of the planet, causing the hottest year in a historical record dating to 1880.

evidence_id: El Niño:129

article: El Niño

evidence: An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern Peru and Ecuador, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme.

evidence_id: El Niño:13

article: El Niño

evidence: However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and is the warming of the ocean surface or above-average sea surface temperatures in either the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

evidence_id: El Niño:18

article: El Niño

evidence: Scientists have also found the chemical signatures of warmer sea surface temperatures and increased rainfall caused by El Niño in coral specimens that are around 13,000 years old.

evidence_id: El Niño:54

article: El Niño

evidence: The event temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 °C, compared to the usual increase of 0.25 °C associated with El Niño events.

evidence_id: La Niña:6

article: La Niña

evidence: La Niña is the positive and cold phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, and is associated with cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.


text: “The global reef crisis does not necessarily mean extinction for coral species.

evidence_id: Conservation biology:229

article: Conservation biology

evidence: The loss of coral reefs, which are predicted to go extinct in the next century, threatens the balance of global biodiversity, will have huge economic impacts, and endangers food security for hundreds of millions of people.

evidence_id: Conservation biology:904

article: Conservation biology

evidence: "One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts".

evidence_id: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event:0

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) extinction, was a sudden mass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth, approximately 66 million years ago.

evidence_id: Extinction risk from global warming:0

article: Extinction risk from global warming

evidence: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming.

evidence_id: Water scarcity:175

article: Water scarcity

evidence: Several fish species have been driven to the edge of extinction and some, such as the disturbed Tokios coral reef formations in the Indian Ocean, are effectively lost.


text: The corals may save themselves, as many other creatures are attempting to do, by moving toward the poles as the Earth warms, establishing new reefs in cooler water.”

evidence_id: Coral in non-tropical regions:0

article: Coral in non-tropical regions

evidence: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Coral in non-tropical regions:40

article: Coral in non-tropical regions

evidence: One way, however, that corals "might escape ocean warming, is to migrate into cooler waters."

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:47

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: The corals could then overgrow the submerged hills, to form the present cays and reefs.

article: Paleocene

evidence: In the modern thermohaline circulation, warm tropical water becomes colder and saltier at the poles and sinks (downwelling or deep water formation) that occurs at the North Atlantic near the North Pole and the Southern Ocean near the Antarctic Peninsula.

article: Paleocene

evidence: In the PETM, it is possible deep water formation occurred in saltier tropical waters and moved polewards, which would increase global surface temperatures by warming the poles.


text: If water temperatures stay moderate, the damaged sections of the Great Barrier Reef may be covered with corals again in as few as 10 or 15 years

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:8

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral.

evidence_id: Coral reef:47

article: Coral reef

evidence: Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years.

evidence_id: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef:43

evidence: When the 2019 Townsville flood waters reached the Great Barrier Reef, the flood plumes covered a large area of corals, even reaching 60 km out to sea.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:132

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: On 3 April 2010, the bulk coal carrier Shen Neng 1 ran aground on Douglas Shoals, spilling up to four tonnes of oil into the water and causing extensive damage to the reef.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:16

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: In March 2017, the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of an 800-kilometre (500 mi) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures, an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change.


text: Within a decade, certain kinds of branching and plate coral could be extinct, reef scientists say, along with a variety of small fish that rely on them for protection from predators.

evidence_id: Coastal fish:180

article: Coastal fish

evidence: In turn, they are preyed on by larger predatory fish, seabirds and marine mammals.

evidence_id: Coral reef:294

article: Coral reef

evidence: This level of variety in the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.

evidence_id: Diversity of fish:55

article: Diversity of fish

evidence: Swordfish are teleosts Rose fish are also teleosts Eels are teleosts too So are seahorses Some of the shortest-lived species are gobies, which are small coral reef–dwelling fish.

evidence_id: Glossary of fishery terms:151

article: Glossary of fishery terms

evidence: Endangered species - An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming extinct.

evidence_id: Glossary of fishery terms:41

article: Glossary of fishery terms

evidence: They are important apex predators feeding on a wide variety of smaller fish and cephalopods.


text: “CO2 is certainly a heat-trapping greenhouse gas, but hardly the primary one: Water vapor accounts for about 95 percent of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:20

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:186

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: At present, the primary source of CO 2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:2

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:717

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The world's most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, a by-product of the burning of fossil fuels.

evidence_id: Water vapor:6

article: Water vapor

evidence: Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in Earth's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.


text: A second coat of paint has much less of an effect, while adding a third or fourth coat has almost no impact at all.”

evidence_id: Alf Ramsey:216

article: Alf Ramsey

evidence: "Shots which appeared certain to score missed by the width of a coat of paint.

evidence_id: Anti-submarine warfare:164

article: Anti-submarine warfare

evidence: However, they ended up having little impact, especially in the latter half of the war.

evidence_id: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film):126

article: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

evidence: The first take ran well, but in the second take, the burst of fire came too soon as a result of which the flames set fire to her green and copper-based face paint, causing third-degree burns on her hands and face.

evidence_id: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film):203

article: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

evidence: During the reshoots in May, the inside of the farm house was painted sepia, and when Dorothy opens the door, it is not Garland, but her stand-in, Bobbie Koshay, wearing a sepia gingham dress, who then backs out of frame; once the camera moves through the door, Garland steps back into frame in her bright blue gingham dress (as noted in DVD extras), and the sepia-painted door briefly tints her with the same color before she emerges from the house's shadow, into the bright glare of the Technicolor lighting.

evidence_id: Tincture (heraldry):229

article: Tincture (heraldry)

evidence: At one point, aluminum paint was used for argent, as it was more resistant to oxidation; but its effect also faded with age.


text: Your odds of correctly guessing the outcome of a flipped coin are 1 in 2, but your odds of guessing correctly twice in a row are only 1 in 4 —

evidence_id: Gambler's fallacy:12

article: Gambler's fallacy

evidence: Since the first four tosses turn up heads, the probability that the next toss is a head is: Pr ( A 5 | A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ A 4 ) = Pr ( A 5 ) = 1 2 {\displaystyle \Pr \left(A_{5}|A_{1}\cap A_{2}\cap A_{3}\cap A_{4}\right)=\Pr \left(A_{5}\right)={\frac {1}{2}}} .

evidence_id: Gambler's fallacy:20

article: Gambler's fallacy

evidence: Assuming a fair coin: The probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail is 0.520 × 0.5 = 0.521 The probability of 20 heads, then 1 head is 0.520 × 0.5 = 0.521 The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152.

article: Probability

evidence: If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is P ( A  and  B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) , {\displaystyle P(A{\mbox{ and }}B)=P(A\cap B)=P(A)P(B),\,} for example, if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is 1 2 × 1 2 = 1 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\tfrac {1}{2}}={\tfrac {1}{4}}} .

article: Probability

evidence: P ( A  or  B ) = P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) − 0 = P ( A ) + P ( B ) {\displaystyle P(A{\mbox{ or }}B)=P(A\cup B)=P(A)+P(B)-P(A\cap B)=P(A)+P(B)-0=P(A)+P(B)} For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a six-sided die is P ( 1  or  2 ) = P ( 1 ) + P ( 2 ) = 1 6 + 1 6 = 1 3 .

evidence_id: Random variable:70

article: Random variable

evidence: {\displaystyle Y(\omega )={\begin{cases}1,&{\text{if }}\omega ={\text{heads}},\\[6pt]0,&{\text{if }}\omega ={\text{tails}}.\end{cases}}} If the coin is a fair coin, Y has a probability mass function f Y {\displaystyle f_{Y}} given by: f Y ( y ) = { 1 2 , if  y = 1 , 1 2 , if  y = 0 , {\displaystyle f_{Y}(y)={\begin{cases}{\tfrac {1}{2}},&{\text{if }}y=1,\\[6pt]{\tfrac {1}{2}},&{\text{if }}y=0,\end{cases}}} A random variable can also be used to describe the process of rolling dice and the possible outcomes.


text: (Multiplying .95 by itself 15 times yields 46.3 percent.)”

evidence_id: Dimensional analysis:69

article: Dimensional analysis

evidence: 1000   g   NO x 1 kg   NO x × 46   kg   NO x 1   kmol   NO x × 1   kmol   NO x 22.414   m 3   NO x × 10   m 3   NO x 10 6   m 3   gas × 20   m 3   gas 1   minute × 60   minute 1   hour = 24.63   g   NO x hour {\displaystyle {\frac {1000\ {\ce {g\ NO}}_{x}}{1{\cancel {{\ce {kg\ NO}}_{x}}}}}\times {\frac {46\ {\cancel {{\ce {kg\ NO}}_{x}}}}{1\ {\cancel {{\ce {kmol\ NO}}_{x}}}}}\times {\frac {1\ {\cancel {{\ce {kmol\ NO}}_{x}}}}{22.414\ {\cancel {{\ce {m}}^{3}\ {\ce {NO}}_{x}}}}}\times {\frac {10\ {\cancel {{\ce {m}}^{3}\ {\ce {NO}}_{x}}}}{10^{6}\ {\cancel {{\ce {m}}^{3}\ {\ce {gas}}}}}}\times {\frac {20\ {\cancel {{\ce {m}}^{3}\ {\ce {gas}}}}}{1\ {\cancel {\ce {minute}}}}}\times {\frac {60\ {\cancel {\ce {minute}}}}{1\ {\ce {hour}}}}=24.63\ {\frac {{\ce {g\ NO}}_{x}}{\ce {hour}}}} After canceling out any dimensional units that appear both in the numerators and denominators of the fractions in the above equation, the NOx concentration of 10 ppmv converts to mass flow rate of 24.63 grams per hour.

evidence_id: Rate of return:33

article: Rate of return

evidence: This is a return of 20,000 USD divided by 100,000 USD, which equals 20 percent.

evidence_id: Rate of return:46

article: Rate of return

evidence: Assuming returns are reinvested, if the returns over n {\displaystyle n} successive time sub-periods are R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , ⋯ , R n {\displaystyle R_{1},R_{2},R_{3},\cdots ,R_{n}} , then the cumulative return or overall return over the overall time period is the result of compounding the returns together: ( 1 + R 1 ) ( 1 + R 2 ) ⋯ ( 1 + R n ) − 1 {\displaystyle (1+R_{1})(1+R_{2})\cdots (1+R_{n})-1} If the returns are logarithmic returns however, the logarithmic return over the overall time period is: ∑ i = 1 n R l o g , i = R l o g , 1 + R l o g , 2 + R l o g , 3 + ⋯ + R l o g , n {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}R_{\mathrm {log} ,i}=R_{\mathrm {log} ,1}+R_{\mathrm {log} ,2}+R_{\mathrm {log} ,3}+\cdots +R_{\mathrm {log} ,n}} This formula applies with an assumption of reinvestment of returns and it means that successive logarithmic returns can be summed, i.e.

evidence_id: Rate of return:53

article: Rate of return

evidence: For example, assuming reinvestment, the cumulative return for annual returns: 50%, -20%, 30% and -40% is: ( 1 + 0.50 ) ( 1 − 0.20 ) ( 1 + 0.30 ) ( 1 − 0.40 ) − 1 = − 0.0640 = − 6.40 % {\displaystyle (1+0.50)(1-0.20)(1+0.30)(1-0.40)-1=-0.0640=-6.40\%} and the geometric average is: ( 1 + 0.50 ) ( 1 − 0.20 ) ( 1 + 0.30 ) ( 1 − 0.40 ) 4 − 1 = − 0.0164 = − 1.64 % {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{4}]{(1+0.50)(1-0.20)(1+0.30)(1-0.40)}}-1=-0.0164=-1.64\%} which is equal to the annualized cumulative return: 1 − 0.0640 4 − 1 = − 0.0164 {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{4}]{1-0.0640}}-1=-0.0164} In the presence of external flows, such as cash or securities moving into or out of the portfolio, the return should be calculated by compensating for these movements.

evidence_id: Rate of return:72

article: Rate of return

evidence: The value of an investment is doubled if the return r {\displaystyle r} = +100%, that is, if r l o g {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {log} }} = ln($200 / $100) = ln(2) = 69.3%.


text: While evidence that the earth’s orbital variations impact radiation levels and thus global temperatures does not of course mean that man is not in some way impacting the climate, studies like these highlight that the role man plays on the planet is dwarfed by natural phenomena utterly out of our control.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:1005

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: There are many interesting palaeoclimate studies that suggest that solar variability had an influence on pre-industrial climate.

evidence_id: Ice age:137

article: Ice age

evidence: The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.

evidence_id: Milankovitch cycles:110

article: Milankovitch cycles

evidence: Physical evidence shows that the variation in Earth's climate is much more extreme than the variation in the intensity of solar radiation calculated as the Earth's orbit evolves.

evidence_id: Milankovitch cycles:119

article: Milankovitch cycles

evidence: Since orbital variations are predictable, any model that relates orbital variations to climate can be run forward to predict future climate, with two caveats: the mechanism by which orbital forcing influences climate is not definitive; and non-orbital effects can be important (for example, Human impact on the environment principally increases in greenhouse gases result in a warmer climate).

evidence_id: Milankovitch cycles:14

article: Milankovitch cycles

evidence: Milankovitch studied changes in these movements of the Earth, which alter the amount and location of solar radiation reaching the Earth.


text: While transient weather variability is playing a key role here, the widespread record warmth across the U.S. so far this year is part of a long-term trend toward more warm temperature records versus cold ones.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:39

article: Global warming

evidence: While record-breaking years attract considerable public interest, individual years are less significant than the overall trend.

evidence_id: Global warming:40

article: Global warming

evidence: Global surface temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlie long-term trends, and can temporarily mask or magnify them.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:30

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: This long-term trend is the main cause for the record warmth of 2015 and 2016, surpassing all previous years—even ones with strong El Niño events."

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:162

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has, for the past 2,000 years, caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend that continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age.


text: So far this month, there have been nearly 5,000 daily record highs set or tied, compared to just 42 daily record lows.

evidence: As a result, for example, US stock prices reached record highs.

article: Milwaukee

evidence: Milwaukee tends to experience highs that are 90 °F (32 °C) on or above seven days per year, and lows at or below 0 °F (−18 °C) on six to seven nights.

evidence_id: New Orleans:306

article: New Orleans

evidence: On average, there are 77 days of 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs, 8.1 days per winter where the high does not exceed 50 °F (10 °C), and 8.0 nights with freezing lows annually.

article: Seattle

evidence: Winters are cool and wet with December, the coolest month, averaging 40.6 °F (4.8 °C), with 28 annual days with lows that reach the freezing mark, and 2.0 days where the temperature stays at or below freezing all day; the temperature rarely lowers to 20 °F (−7 °C).

article: Seattle

evidence: The hottest officially recorded temperature was 103 °F (39 °C) on July 29, 2009; the coldest recorded temperature was 0 °F (−18 °C) on January 31, 1950; the record cold daily maximum is 16 °F (−9 °C) on January 14, 1950, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 71 °F (22 °C) the day the official record high was set.


text: In Albany, New York, the high temperature of 74 degrees on Thursday was the warmest temperature on record for any day during the months of December, January and February.

evidence_id: Albany, New York:162

article: Albany, New York

evidence: Record temperature extremes range from −28 °F (−33 °C), on January 19, 1971, to 104 °F (40 °C) on July 4, 1911.

article: Chicago

evidence: The normal winter high from December through March is about 36 °F (2 °C), with January and February being the coldest months; January 2019's polar vortex nearly broke the city's cold record of minus 27 degrees, which was set on January 20, 1985.

article: December

evidence: January February March April May June July August September October November December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars and is the seventh and last of seven months to have a length of 31 days.

evidence_id: Humid subtropical climate:105

article: Humid subtropical climate

evidence: Temperatures are very warm to hot but are not excessive: the average maximum in February is usually around 29 °C (84 °F) and in July around 21 °C (70 °F).

article: Season

evidence: However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.


text: But as that upper layer warms up, the oxygen-rich waters are less likely to mix down into cooler layers of the ocean because the warm waters are less dense and do not sink as readily.

evidence_id: Anoxic event:88

article: Anoxic event

evidence: If the high latitude waters are below 5 °C (41 °F), they will be dense enough to sink; as they are cool, oxygen is highly soluble in their waters, and the deep ocean will be oxygenated.

evidence_id: Anoxic event:89

article: Anoxic event

evidence: If high latitude waters are warmer than 5 °C (41 °F), their density is too low for them to sink below the cooler deep waters.

evidence_id: Lake ecosystem:28

article: Lake ecosystem

evidence: As the season progresses, the warmer air temperatures heat the surface waters, making them less dense.

evidence_id: Marine habitats:49

article: Marine habitats

evidence: Water that is saltier or cooler will be denser, and will sink in relation to the surrounding water.

article: Sea

evidence: Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks.


text: They do not make a definitive attribution statement, but the data are consistent with and strongly suggestive of human-driven warming as a root cause of the oxygen decline.’”

evidence_id: Climate change and ecosystems:32

article: Climate change and ecosystems

evidence: A 2005 study concludes human activity is the cause of the temperature rise and resultant changing species behaviour, and links these effects with the predictions of climate models to provide validation for them.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:132

evidence: They reaffirmed their 2007 position statement on climate change "based on the large body of scientific evidence that Earth's climate is warming and that human activity is a contributing factor.

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:279

article: Global warming

evidence: The scientific consensus as of 2013[update], as stated in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, is that it "is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".

evidence_id: Global warming:334

article: Global warming

evidence: He said, "Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and the observed warming."


text: Because oxygen in the global ocean is not evenly distributed, the 2 percent overall decline means there is a much larger decline in some areas of the ocean than others.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:134

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: The ocean has already lost oxygen, throughout the entire water column and oxygen minimum zones are expanding worldwide.

evidence_id: Environmental issues in Thailand:36

article: Environmental issues in Thailand

evidence: The decline in income is not evenly distributed, with tropical regions hardest hit.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:0

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:131

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: Ozone at middle latitudes has declined, but by a much smaller extent (a decrease of about 4–5 percent).

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:53

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: The greatest Arctic declines are in the winter and spring, reaching up to 30 percent when the stratosphere is coldest.


text: “Moreover, the ocean already contains so-called oxygen minimum zones, generally found in the middle depths.

evidence_id: Dead zone (ecology):0

article: Dead zone (ecology)

evidence: Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the world's oceans and large lakes, caused by "excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in bottom and near-bottom water.

evidence_id: Dead zone (ecology):26

article: Dead zone (ecology)

evidence: These areas are also known as oxygen minimum zones (OMZ).

evidence_id: Deep sea fish:8

article: Deep sea fish

evidence: The oxygen minimum layer exists somewhere between a depth of 700m and 1000m deep depending on the place in the ocean.

article: Lake

evidence: The deeper layer becomes oxygen starved and can become saturated with carbon dioxide, or other gases such as sulfur dioxide if there is even a trace of volcanic activity.

evidence_id: Mesopelagic zone:41

article: Mesopelagic zone

evidence: The oxygen consumption due to respiration of most of the sinking organic matter and lack of gas exchange, often creates an oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) in the mesopelagic.


text: warmer oceans have also begun to destabilize glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:326

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: In Greenland, glacier retreat has been observed in outlet glaciers, resulting in an increase of the ice flow rate and destabilization of the mass balance of the ice sheet that is their source.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:120

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Some of Greenland's largest outlet glaciers, such as Jakobshavn Isbræ and Kangerlussuaq Glacier, are flowing faster into the ocean.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:3

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:56

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The three main reasons warming causes global sea level to rise are: oceans expand, ice sheets lose ice faster than it forms from snowfall, and glaciers at higher altitudes also melt.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:639

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "A tipping point in refreezing accelerates mass loss of Greenland's glaciers and ice caps".


text: However, this is exactly what climate scientists have predicted for California since at least the 1980s: protracted periods of warm, dry conditions punctuated by intense wet spells, with more rain and less snow, causing both drought and floods.

evidence_id: Climate of the United Kingdom:225

article: Climate of the United Kingdom

evidence: The summer of 1976 or 2019, for example, experienced temperatures as high as 35 °C (95 °F), and it was so dry the country suffered drought and water shortages.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:79

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: more intense droughts and tropical cyclones) are more uncertain.

evidence_id: Mediterranean climate:47

article: Mediterranean climate

evidence: hot and dry); as a result, these communities are well suited to recover from droughts, floods, and fires.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:46

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: Between 2011 and 2014, California experienced the driest period in its recorded history and more than 100 million trees died in the drought, creating areas of dead, dry wood.

article: Rain

evidence: There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.


text: […] in fact this pattern is already emerging, with the conditions that create extremely warm dry years and extremely wet years both becoming more frequent.

article: Alentejo

evidence: The climate of the region is typically warm and dry for a large part of the year, with summer temperatures occasionally reaching up to 40 °C (104 °F), while winters are relatively mild and wet.

evidence_id: Global warming:156

article: Global warming

evidence: Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.

evidence_id: List of ecoregions in North America (CEC):32

evidence: Today the weather is generally very cold and dry with a few weeks of sun and rain in the summer.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:23

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: In other words, regions which are dry at present will generally become even drier, while regions that are currently wet will generally become even wetter.

evidence_id: Temperate climate:21

article: Temperate climate

evidence: In these regions winters are quite dry and summers have very heavy rainfall.


text: “In an old climate, … extremely warm years were less common and snowpack was more reliable …

article: Durban

evidence: Durban has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with hot and humid summers and pleasantly warm and dry winters, which are snow and frost-free.

article: Montreal

evidence: It has a distinct four-season continental climate with warm to hot summers and cold, snowy winters.

evidence_id: Podlaskie Voivodeship:28

article: Podlaskie Voivodeship

evidence: Podlaskie has a Warm Summer Continental or Hemiboreal climate (Dfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system, which is characterized by warm temperatures during summer and long and frosty winters.

article: Taiga

evidence: The taiga or boreal forest has a subarctic climate with very large temperature range between seasons, but the long and cold winter is the dominant feature.

article: Taiga

evidence: The summers, while short, are generally warm and humid.


text: “There is now less sea ice on Earth than at any time on record.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:66

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea.

article: Earth

evidence: This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.

evidence_id: Global warming:150

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice, making it vulnerable to atmospheric anomalies.

evidence_id: Global warming:354

article: Global warming

evidence: rising sea levels, shrinking Arctic sea ice).

article: Holocene

evidence: However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene.


text: The amount of summer sea ice in the Arctic has steadily declined over the past few decades because of man-made global warming, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

article: Arctic

evidence: The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:0

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

evidence_id: Global warming:11

article: Global warming

evidence: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:69

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The global warming observed over the past 50 years is due primarily to human-induced emissions of heat-trapping gases.


text: “At the bottom of the world, sea ice is also at all-time record low levels around Antarctica, the data center said.

article: Antarctica

evidence: "A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic".

article: Antarctica

evidence: If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 m (200 ft).

evidence_id: Colonization of Mars:30

article: Colonization of Mars

evidence: The lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth was 180 K (−89.2 °C, −128.6 °F) in Antarctica.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:149

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: Sea ice extent for September for 2012 was by far the lowest on record at 3.29 million square kilometers, eclipsing the previous record low sea ice extent of 2007 by 18%.

evidence_id: Sea ice:118

article: Sea ice

evidence: Arctic sea ice extent ice hit an all-time low in September 2012, when the ice was determined to cover only 24% of the Arctic Ocean, offsetting the previous low of 29% in 2007.


text: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

claim_label: DISPUTED

article: Antarctica

evidence: There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions, but this remains ambiguous.

article: Antarctica

evidence: According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005, when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as 5 °C (41 °F).

article: Earth

evidence: There is a scientific consensus linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming in Antarctica:6

article: Global warming in Antarctica

evidence: Research published in 2009 found that overall the continent had become warmer since the 1950s, a finding consistent with the influence of man-made climate change: "We can't pin it down, but it certainly is consistent with the influence of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels", said NASA scientist Drew Shindell, another study co-author.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:312

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation.


text: “[Sea ice] also helps regulate the planet’s temperature by influencing the circulation of the atmosphere and ocean.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):53

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere and/or by altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.

article: Earth

evidence: Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.

article: Ocean

evidence: It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation.

evidence_id: Sea ice:122

article: Sea ice

evidence: Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment.

evidence_id: Sea ice:129

article: Sea ice

evidence: Furthermore, sea ice affects the movement of ocean waters.


text: “ NASA concurred with NOAA, also declaring 2016 the warmest year on record in its own data set that tracks the temperatures at the surface of the planet’s land and oceans, and expressing ‘greater than 95 percent certainty’ in that conclusion.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:186

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: "U.S. Report Confirms 2016 Was The Hottest Year On Record".

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:22

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: Consistent with Schmidt's comment, the NASA / NOAA announcement stated that "globally-averaged temperatures in 2016 were 1.78 degrees Fahrenheit (0.99 degrees Celsius) warmer than the mid-20th century mean" and that the impact of El Niño warming was estimated to have "increased the annual global temperature anomaly for 2016 by 0.2 degrees Fahrenheit (0.12 degrees Celsius)."

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:5

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:55

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: The Earth's average surface absolute temperature for the 1961–1990 period has been derived by spatial interpolation of average observed near-surface air temperatures from over the land, oceans and sea ice regions, with a best estimate of 14 °C (57.2 °F).

article: NASA

evidence: Its statements concur with the global scientific consensus that the global climate is warming.


text: “But the differences between NOAA and NASA aren’t that significant, Schmidt further argued, in the context of the bigger picture.

evidence_id: Communications satellite:65

article: Communications satellite

evidence: In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:432

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Such statements suggest that there might be substantive disagreement in the scientific community about the reality of anthropogenic climate change.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:59

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: There are differences between the opinion of scientists and that of the general public.

evidence_id: Global warming:287

article: Global warming

evidence: Significant regional differences exist in how concerned people are about climate change and how much they understand the issue.

article: Instrumental temperature record


text: ‘Getting hung up on the exact nature of the records is interesting, and there’s lots of technical work that can be done there, but the main take-home response there is that the trends we’ve been seeing since the 1970s are continuing and have not paused in any way,’ he said.”

evidence_id: Rock music:194

article: Rock music

evidence: Reflecting on developments in rock music at the start of the 1970s, Robert Christgau later wrote in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981): The decade is, of course, an arbitrary schema itself—time doesn't just execute a neat turn toward the future every ten years.

article: Twitter

evidence: Tech writer Bruce Sterling commented in 2007 that using Twitter for "literate communication" is "about as likely as firing up a CB radio and hearing some guy recite the Iliad".

evidence_id: Wayback Machine:126

article: Wayback Machine

evidence: Kevin Vaughan suspects that in the long-term of multiple generations "next to nothing" will survive in a useful way besides "if we have continuity in our technological civilization" by which "a lot of the bare data will remain findable and searchable".

article: Wikipedia

evidence: Rosenzweig also criticized the "waffling—encouraged by the NPOV policy—[which] means that it is hard to discern any overall interpretive stance in Wikipedia history".

article: Wikipedia

evidence: On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year.


text: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:132

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are: burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:186

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: At present, the primary source of CO 2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:7

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion and agriculture (including livestock).

evidence_id: Human impact on the environment:8

article: Human impact on the environment

evidence: Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.

evidence_id: Non-renewable resource:16

article: Non-renewable resource

evidence: At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels.


text: The particular signature of warming in 2016 was also revealing in another way, Overpeck said, noting that the stratosphere… saw record cold temperatures last year

article: Eocene

evidence: The polar stratospheric clouds had a warming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to 20 °C in the winter months.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:37

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: that surface air temperatures would be the same as, or colder than, a given region's winter for months to years on end.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:312

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:336

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: One of the strongest predictions of the greenhouse effect is that the stratosphere will cool.

evidence_id: Satellite temperature measurements:39

article: Satellite temperature measurements

evidence: Global Warming theory suggests that the stratosphere should cool while the troposphere warms.


text: ‘We don’t expect record years every year, but the ongoing long-term warming trend is clear.’”

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):10

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Climate change is a long-term, sustained trend of change in climate.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:236

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Using the long-term temperature trends for the earth scientists and statisticians conclude that it continues to warm through time.

evidence_id: Global warming:39

article: Global warming

evidence: While record-breaking years attract considerable public interest, individual years are less significant than the overall trend.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:30

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: This long-term trend is the main cause for the record warmth of 2015 and 2016, surpassing all previous years—even ones with strong El Niño events."

article: Phenology

evidence: Between 1850 and 1950 a long-term trend of gradual climate warming is observable, and during this same period the Marsham record of oak-leafing dates tended to become earlier.


text: Last year’s warmth was manifested across the planet, from the warm tropical ocean waters off the coast of northeastern Australia, where the Great Barrier Reef experienced its worst coral bleaching event on record and large scale coral death, to the Arctic, where sea ice hit regular monthly record lows and overall temperatures were also the warmest on record, at least from January through September 2016.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:173

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic % Millions of years ago (H) K–Pg Tr–J P–Tr Cap Late D O–S Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:51

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:65

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:14

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:16

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: In March 2017, the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of an 800-kilometre (500 mi) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures, an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change.


text: Extreme high temperatures were seen from India — where the city of Phalodi recorded temperatures of 51 degrees Celsius (123.8 Fahrenheit) in May, a new national record — to Iran, where a temperature of 53 degrees Celsius (127.4 F) was recorded in Delhoran on July 22.

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:260

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: Temperatures of 53.7C (128.66 F) have been recorded in Pakistan.

evidence_id: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan:29

article: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan

evidence: On 2 June 2019, the city of Churu recorded a temperature of 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), only one-fifth of a degree Celsius short of the country's highest-ever temperature, 51 °C (124 °F) during the 2016 heat wave.

evidence_id: Abadan, Iran:65

article: Abadan, Iran

evidence: which was recorded on January 20, 1964 and February 3, 1967 while the highest is 53 °C (127 °F), recorded on July 11, 1951 and August 9, 1981.

article: Phalodi

evidence: It holds the record for the highest verified temperature recorded in India at 51 °C (124 °F) on 19 May 2016.

article: Phalodi

evidence: The highest temperatures recorded in Phalodi during 2016 summers from 18 May to 21 May when it rose up to 51 degrees Celsius.


text: But then, just over a year ago, Mike Wallace, a hydrologist with 30 years’ experience, noticed while researching his PhD that they had omitted some key information[…] his results were surprising: there has been no reduction in oceanic pH

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:129

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, although the Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component.

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:151

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:211

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately 4–5 years of research (amounting to 3–5 scientific articles, some of which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies.

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:317

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: This is typically done after one or two years and the research work done may count towards the Ph.D. degree.

evidence_id: Doctor of Philosophy:40

article: Doctor of Philosophy

evidence: The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree.


text: Ocean acidification is the terrifying threat whereby all that man-made CO2 we’ve been pumping into the atmosphere may react with the sea to form a sort of giant acid bath.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:302

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: This is the case for CO 2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:116

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: With the production of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, oceans are becoming more acidic since CO2 dissolves in water and forms the acidic bicarbonate ion.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:140

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: For example, the elevated oceanic levels of CO 2 may produce CO 2-induced acidification of body fluids, known as hypercapnia.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:229

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: The ocean would not become acidic even if it were to absorb the CO2 produced from the combustion of all fossil fuel resources.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:3

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid.


text: “[…]The impact on calcification, metabolism, growth, fertility and survival of calcifying marine species when pH is lowered up to 0.3 units […] is beneficial, not damaging.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:205

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: This reduction in pH affects biological systems in the oceans, primarily oceanic calcifying organisms.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:173

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: The effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:190

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: The German Advisory Council on Global Change stated: In order to prevent disruption of the calcification of marine organisms and the resultant risk of fundamentally altering marine food webs, the following guard rail should be obeyed: the pH of near surface waters should not drop more than 0.2 units below the pre-industrial average value in any larger ocean region (nor in the global mean).

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:29

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: It is expected to drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 pH units (an additional doubling to tripling of today's post-industrial acid concentrations) by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic CO 2, the impacts being most severe for coral reefs and the Southern Ocean.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:83

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Although the natural absorption of CO 2 by the world's oceans helps mitigate the climatic effects of anthropogenic emissions of CO 2, it is believed that the resulting decrease in pH will have negative consequences, primarily for oceanic calcifying organisms.


text: Marine life has nothing whatsoever to fear from ocean acidification.”

evidence_id: Marine life:725

article: Marine life

evidence: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, pollution, acidification and the introduction of invasive species.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:509

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: "Rising levels of acids in seas may endanger marine life, says study".

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:7

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms and causing coral bleaching.

article: Sea

evidence: Calcium carbonate also becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification is likely to have profound effects on marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins, and corals, because their ability to form shells will be reduced, and the carbonate compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface.

article: Seawater

evidence: One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).


text: [ocean acidification was ] First referenced in a peer-reviewed study in Nature in 2003

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:43

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: A National Research Council study released in April 2010 likewise concluded that "the level of acid in the oceans is increasing at an unprecedented rate".

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:44

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: A 2012 paper in the journal Science examined the geological record in an attempt to find a historical analog for current global conditions as well as those of the future.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:52

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: A 2013 study claimed acidity was increasing at a rate 10 times faster than in any of the evolutionary crises in Earth's history.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:53

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: In a synthesis report published in Science in 2015, 22 leading marine scientists stated that CO 2 from burning fossil fuels is changing the oceans' chemistry more rapidly than at any time since the Great Dying, Earth's most severe known extinction event, emphasizing that the 2 °C maximum temperature increase agreed upon by governments reflects too small a cut in emissions to prevent "dramatic impacts" on the world's oceans, with lead author Jean-Pierre Gattuso remarking that "The ocean has been minimally considered at previous climate negotiations.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:91

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: A study in 2008 examining a sediment core from the North Atlantic found that while the species composition of coccolithophorids has remained unchanged for the industrial period 1780 to 2004, the calcification of coccoliths has increased by up to 40% during the same time.


text: There was, he said, an ‘inherent bias’ in scientific journals which predisposed them to publish ‘doom and gloom stories’.

evidence_id: Academic journal:200

article: Academic journal

evidence: "Scientific Articles Accepted (Personal Checks, Too)".

evidence_id: MIT Technology Review:20

article: MIT Technology Review

evidence: The historical Technology Review often published articles that were controversial, or critical of certain technologies.

evidence_id: MIT Technology Review:72

article: MIT Technology Review

evidence: Editor-in-chief Pontin said, "Of the ten stories which were published, only three were entirely accurate.

evidence_id: Scientific journal:42

article: Scientific journal

evidence: Some journals, such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and Physical Review Letters, have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields.

article: Survivalism

evidence: In his 2008 book Wealth, War and Wisdom, Biggs has a gloomy outlook for the economic future, and suggests that investors take survivalist measures.


text: “The chain of events that links the melting Arctic with weather to the south begins with rising global temperatures causing more sea ice to melt.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:14

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The fast rate of the sea ice melting is resulting in the oceans absorbing and heating up the Arctic.

article: Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:0

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

evidence_id: Global warming:11

article: Global warming

evidence: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.

evidence_id: Global warming:92

article: Global warming

evidence: Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea level rise.


text: “The jet stream forms a boundary between the cold north and the warmer south, but the lower temperature difference means the winds are now weaker.

evidence_id: Global warming:37

article: Global warming

evidence: As the temperature difference between the Arctic and the equator decreases, ocean currents that are driven by that temperature difference, like the Gulf Stream, are weakening.

evidence_id: Jet stream:125

article: Jet stream

evidence: This in turn reduces the temperature gradient that drives jet stream winds, which may eventually cause the jet stream to become weaker and more variable in its course.

evidence_id: Jet stream:146

article: Jet stream

evidence: Surface winds below the jet may sway vegetation, but are significantly weaker.

evidence_id: Jet stream:62

article: Jet stream

evidence: If two air masses, one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South, are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed, the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass.

evidence_id: Jet stream:66

article: Jet stream

evidence: Therefore, the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the North and South poles.


text: This means the jet stream meanders more, with big loops bringing warm air to the frozen north and cold air into warmer southern climes.”

evidence_id: Early 2014 North American cold wave:10

article: Early 2014 North American cold wave

evidence: According to the UK Met Office, the jet stream deviated[clarification needed] to the south (bringing cold air with it) as a result of unusual contrast between cold air in Canada and mild winter temperatures in the United States.

evidence_id: Early 2014 North American cold wave:136

article: Early 2014 North American cold wave

evidence: This jet stream instability brings warm air north as well as cold air south.

evidence_id: Jet stream:138

article: Jet stream

evidence: Within the vortex, the cold polar air becomes increasingly cold with neither warmer air from lower latitudes nor energy from the Sun during the polar night.

evidence_id: Jet stream:42

article: Jet stream

evidence: The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.

evidence_id: Jet stream:54

article: Jet stream

evidence: The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses.


text: This “blocking” effect means extreme events can unfold.”

evidence_id: Arab Spring:31

article: Arab Spring

evidence: The world watched the events of the Arab Spring unfold, "gripped by the narrative of a young generation peacefully rising up against oppressive authoritarianism to secure a more democratic political system and a brighter economic future."

evidence_id: List of cognitive biases:359

article: List of cognitive biases

evidence: "Interoceptive cues predicting exteroceptive events".

evidence_id: List of memory biases:4

article: List of memory biases

evidence: Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough.

evidence_id: Solar particle event:31

article: Solar particle event

evidence: The effect can be so pronounced that during extreme events, it is not possible to obtain quality images of the Sun or stars.

evidence_id: Variable star:75

article: Variable star

evidence: The expansion phase of a pulsation is caused by the blocking of the internal energy flow by material with a high opacity, but this must occur at a particular depth of the star to create visible pulsations.


text: Severe ‘snowmageddon’ winters are now strongly linked to soaring polar temperatures, say researchers, with deadly summer heatwaves and torrential floods also probably linked.

evidence_id: Global storm activity of 2010:396

article: Global storm activity of 2010

evidence: The El Niño phenomenon was blamed for the unusually high sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean that moved east, thus pulling rainfall along with it.

evidence_id: Heat wave:100

article: Heat wave

evidence: Eric Klinenberg has noted that in the United States, the loss of human life in hot spells in summer exceeds that caused by all other weather events combined, including lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes.

evidence_id: List of extreme weather records in Pakistan:12

evidence: The most deadly heat wave in the history of Pakistan is the record-breaking heat wave of summer 2010 which occurred in the last ten days of May.

article: Rain

evidence: The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.

evidence_id: Year Without a Summer:58

article: Year Without a Summer

evidence: Rapid, dramatic temperature swings were common, with temperatures sometimes reverting from normal or above-normal summer temperatures as high as 95 °F (35 °C) to near-freezing within hours.


text: Prof Adam Scaife, a climate modelling expert at the UK’s Met Office, said the evidence for a link to shrinking Arctic ice was now good: ‘The consensus points towards that being a real effect.’”

evidence_id: Adam Scaife:8

article: Adam Scaife

evidence: Scaife and his team have made recent advances in long range weather forecasting and have uncovered a signal to noise paradox in climate models that makes them better at predicting the real climate than they are at predicting themselves.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:113

evidence: In response to the incident, 1,700 British scientists signed a joint statement circulated by the UK Met Office declaring their "utmost confidence in the observational evidence for global warming and the scientific basis for concluding that it is due primarily to human activities".

article: Greenland

evidence: Ben Keene, the atlas's editor, commented: "In the last two or three decades, global warming has reduced the size of glaciers throughout the Arctic and earlier this year, news sources confirmed what climate scientists already knew: water, not rock, lay beneath this ice bridge on the east coast of Greenland.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:186

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The American Meteorological Society (AMS) statement adopted by their council in 2012 concluded: There is unequivocal evidence that Earth's lower atmosphere, ocean, and land surface are warming; sea level is rising; and snow cover, mountain glaciers, and Arctic sea ice are shrinking.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:307

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Network of African Science Academies: "A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change."


text: The connection between the vanishing Arctic ice and extreme summer weather in the northern hemisphere is probable, according to scientists, but not yet as certain as the winter link.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:80

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: Evidence suggest that the continued loss of Arctic sea-ice and snow cover may influence weather at lower latitudes.

evidence_id: Early 2014 North American cold wave:45

article: Early 2014 North American cold wave

evidence: Europe also saw the 2013-2014 Atlantic winter storms in Europe which has been linked to the cold winter in North America.

article: Earth

evidence: Earth is closest to the Sun (at perihelion) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

article: Earth

evidence: Consequently, summers are 2.3 °C (4 °F) warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.

evidence_id: Extreme weather:46

article: Extreme weather

evidence: Some studies assert a connection between rapidly warming arctic temperatures and thus a vanishing cryosphere to extreme weather in mid-latitudes.


text: Another consequence of the fast melting Arctic raises the possibility that there may be even worse extreme weather to come, according to a few scientists: titanic Atlantic superstorms and hurricanes barreling across Europe.

article: Arctic

evidence: In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:0

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:467

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: "Global warming will bring fiercer hurricanes".

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:90

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: Scientists have found evidence that increased evaporation could result in more extreme weather as global warming progresses.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:107

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The statement references the IPCC's Fourth Assessment of 2007, and asserts that "climate change is happening even faster than previously estimated; global CO 2 emissions since 2000 have been higher than even the highest predictions, Arctic sea ice has been melting at rates much faster than predicted, and the rise in the sea level has become more rapid".


text: This means it is possible that by some yardsticks, 2016 will be declared as hot as 2015 or even slightly hotter – because El Nino did not vanish until the middle of the year.

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:32

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: During November and December 2015, values within NOAA's Oceanic Niño Index peaked at 2.4 °C (4.3 °F), which surpassed December 1997 value of 2.2 °C (4.0 °F).

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:39

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: As a result of this the BoM, NOAA's CPC, IRI, and the JMA, all declared that the record-tying El Niño event had ended in late May/early June.

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:53

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: The El Niño event also contributed to the Earth's warming trend, with 2014 and 2015 being two of the warmest years on record.

evidence_id: El Niño:123

article: El Niño

evidence: Tehuantepecers primarily occur during the cold season months for the region in the wake of cold fronts, between October and February, with a summer maximum in July caused by the westward extension of the Azores High.

evidence_id: El Niño:24

article: El Niño

evidence: However, the Japan Meteorological Agency declares that an El Niño event has started when the average five month sea surface temperature deviation for the NINO.3 region, is over 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) warmer for six consecutive months or longer.


text: The record warm years of 2015 and 2016 were primarily caused by the super El Nino.’”

evidence_id: El Niño:129

article: El Niño

evidence: An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern Peru and Ecuador, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme.

evidence_id: El Niño:30

article: El Niño

evidence: It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events since 1900, with the 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2014–16 events among the strongest on record.

article: Holocene

evidence: The Holocene has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS 1.

evidence_id: Ice age:82

article: Ice age

evidence: The Huronian ice age was caused by the elimination of atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, during the Great Oxygenation Event.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:0

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period.


text: Global average temperatures over land have plummeted by more than 1C since the middle of this year – their biggest and steepest fall on record.

article: Earth

evidence: The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was 56.7 °C (134.1 °F) in Furnace Creek, California, in Death Valley, in 1913.

evidence_id: Global warming:0

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.

article: Paleocene

evidence: In the Paleocene, with a global average temperature of about 24–25 °C (75–77 °F), compared to 14 °C (57 °F) in more recent times, the Earth had a greenhouse climate without permanent ice sheets at the poles, like the preceding Mesozoic.

article: Paleocene

evidence: The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum was an approximate 200,000 year long event where the global average temperature rose by some 5 to 8 °C (9 to 14 °F), and mid-latitude and polar areas may have exceeded modern tropical temperatures of 24–29 °C (75–84 °F).

article: Paleocene

evidence: For comparison, the average global temperature for the period between 1951 and 1980 was 14 °C (57 °F).


text: Scientists confirm a mass bleaching event on the Great Barrier Reef this year has killed more corals than ever before, with more than two thirds destroyed across large swathes of the biodiverse site.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:123

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: Over two thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:8

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:14

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:18

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: Many of the mature breeding adults died in the bleaching events of 2016–17 leading to low coral birth rates.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:94

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: According to a 2012 study by the National Academy of Science, since 1985, the Great Barrier Reef has lost more than half of its corals with two-thirds of the loss occurring from 1998 due to the factors listed before.


text: When water temperatures become too high, coral becomes stressed and expels the algae, which leave the coral a bleached white color.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:0

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:242

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: The loss of the colorful algae causes the coral to turn white.

evidence_id: Coral reef:181

article: Coral reef

evidence: Coral that loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are pigmented with their own proteins) and is said to be bleached, a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral.

article: Coral

evidence: Under such environmental stresses, corals expel their Symbiodinium; without them coral tissues reveal the white of their skeletons, an event known as coral bleaching.

article: Coral

evidence: Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching because the algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as green fluorescent proteins (GFPs).


text: Stress from unusually warm ocean water heated by man-made climate change and the natural El Niño climate pattern caused the die-off.

evidence_id: 2014–16 El Niño event:0

article: 2014–16 El Niño event

evidence: The 2014–16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line.

evidence_id: El Niño:1

article: El Niño

evidence: The ENSO is the cycle of warm and cold sea surface temperature (SST) of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean.

evidence_id: El Niño:13

article: El Niño

evidence: However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and is the warming of the ocean surface or above-average sea surface temperatures in either the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

evidence_id: El Niño:419

article: El Niño

evidence: "Impact of Shifting Patterns of Pacific Ocean Warming on North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones".

evidence_id: La Niña:6

article: La Niña

evidence: La Niña is the positive and cold phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, and is associated with cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.


text: Mass coral bleaching is a new phenomenon and was never observed before the 1980s as global warming ramped up.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:121

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the oceans temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:24

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by global warming.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:40

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2°C coupled with the strong El Niño event in 1997-1998.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:51

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:76

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October.


text: “While record low sea ice is nothing new in the Arctic, this is a surprising turn of events for the Antarctic.

article: Antarctica

evidence: "A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic".

article: Antarctica

evidence: "Antarctica appears to have broken a heat record".

article: Antarctica

evidence: The extent of sea ice around Antarctica (in terms of square kilometers of coverage) has remained roughly constant in recent decades, although the amount of variation it has experienced in its thickness is unclear.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:0

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:336

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: "Record Arctic sea ice minimum confirmed by NSIDC".


text: Even as sea ice in the Arctic has seen a rapid and consistent decline over the past decade, its counterpart in the Southern Hemisphere has seen its extent increasing.”

article: Antarctica

evidence: A satellite record revealed that the overall increase in Antarctic sea ice extents reversed in 2014, with rapid rates of decrease in 2014–2017 reducing the Antarctic sea ice extents to their lowest values in the 40-y record.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:249

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Polar Discovery "Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005".

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:22

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: Sea ice is currently in decline in area, extent, and volume and summertime sea ice may cease to exist sometime during the 21st century.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:35

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: From 1979–1996, the average per decade decline in entire ice coverage was a 2.2% decline in ice extent and a 3% decline in ice area.

evidence_id: Sea ice:120

article: Sea ice

evidence: Antarctic sea ice extent gradually increased in the period of satellite observations, which began in 1979, until a rapid decline in southern hemisphere spring of 2016.


text: Skeptics have long pointed to ice gain in the Southern Hemisphere as evidence climate change wasn’t occurring, but scientists warned that it was caused by natural variations and circulations in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:120

article: Climate change denial

evidence: These groups often point to natural variability, such as sunspots and cosmic rays, to explain the warming trend.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:1

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:233

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In a NASA report published in January 2013, Hansen and Sato noted "the 5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing."

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:281

article: Global warming

evidence: In November 2017, a second warning to humanity signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries stated that "the current trajectory of potentially catastrophic climate change due to rising greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural production – particularly from farming ruminants for meat consumption" is "especially troubling".


text: It “certainly puts the kibosh on everyone saying that Antarctica’s ice is just going up and up,” Meier said.

article: Antarctica

evidence: "Study concludes Antarctica is gaining ice, rather than losing it".

article: Antarctica

article: Antarctica

article: Antarctica

evidence: However, it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level.

article: Antarctica

evidence: found instead that the net change in ice mass is slightly positive at approximately 82 gigatonnes per year (with significant regional variation) which would result in Antarctic activity reducing global sea-level rise by 0.23 mm per year.


text: For what appears to be the first time since scientists began keeping track, sea ice in the Arctic and the Antarctic are at record lows this time of year.

article: Antarctica

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:31

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The previous record of the lowest area of the Arctic Ocean covered by ice in 2012 saw a low of 1.58 million square miles (4.09 million square kilometers).

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:9

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: The Arctic sea ice minimum is the day in a given year when Arctic sea ice reaches its smallest extent, occurring at the end of the summer melting season, normally during September.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:28

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The Arctic sea ice September minimum extent (i.e., area with at least 15% sea ice coverage) reached new record lows in 2002, 2005, 2007, and 2012.

evidence_id: Sea ice:118

article: Sea ice

evidence: Arctic sea ice extent ice hit an all-time low in September 2012, when the ice was determined to cover only 24% of the Arctic Ocean, offsetting the previous low of 29% in 2007.


text: “It’s far too early to tell if what we are seeing in the Arctic, and now the Antarctic, is a sharp shift towards warmer poles with less ice.

article: Antarctica

evidence: "A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic".

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

article: Eocene

evidence: During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles.

evidence_id: Global warming:11

article: Global warming

evidence: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.

evidence_id: North Pole:177

article: North Pole

evidence: The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation.


text: Temperatures in the Arctic have soared recently, and scientists are struggling to explain exactly why.

article: Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:158

article: Global warming

evidence: Various mechanisms have been identified that might explain extreme weather in mid-latitudes from the rapidly warming Arctic, such as the jet stream becoming more erratic.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:36

article: Global warming

evidence: Arctic temperatures have increased and are predicted to continue to increase during this century at over twice the rate of the rest of the world.


text: To make matters worse, the water temperatures in the Arctic Ocean are several degrees above average, which is an expected result of having less sea ice.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:121

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:163

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:6

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:93

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C).

article: Global warming


text: “Unlike genuine pollutants, carbon dioxide (CO2) is an odorless, colorless gas.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:0

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO 2) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:60

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide is colorless.

evidence_id: Carbon monoxide:0

article: Carbon monoxide

evidence: Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air.

evidence_id: Carbon monoxide:61

article: Carbon monoxide

evidence: Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, and tasteless, but highly toxic.

evidence_id: Exhaust gas:48

article: Exhaust gas

evidence: Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but highly toxic.


text: [CO2] is also a greenhouse gas which helps maintain earth at a habitable temperature.

article: Earth

evidence: This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature.

article: Earth

evidence: Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:2

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).

evidence_id: Terraforming of Mars:59

article: Terraforming of Mars

evidence: Because its atmosphere consists mainly of CO 2, a known greenhouse gas, once Mars begins to heat, the CO 2 may help to keep thermal energy near the surface.

article: Water

evidence: Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature.