text: temperature under the ice is fixed at -2C.  Thus elevated winter   air temperatures

evidence_id: Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station:11

article: Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station

evidence: During this six-month "night", air temperatures can drop below −73 °C (−99 °F).

article: Climate

evidence: A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are above 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months of the year, with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the cold winters.

article: Earth

evidence: The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station in 1983, but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) in East Antarctica.

article: Precipitation

evidence: Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes.

evidence_id: Winter storm:47

article: Winter storm

evidence: They typically occur when a layer of warm air hovers over a region, but the ambient temperature a few meters above the ground is near or below 0 °C (32 °F), and the ground temperature is sub-freezing.


text: Whatever is driving increases in winter Arctic temperatures   is not heat coming out of the Arctic Ocean, which is covered with   insulating ice.'

claim_label: DISPUTED

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:101

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:121

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:141

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:5

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter.

evidence_id: Arctic ice pack:6

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Arctic ice pack

evidence: Sea ice has an important effect on the heat balance of the polar oceans, since it insulates the (relatively) warm ocean from the much colder air above, thus reducing heat loss from the oceans.


text: "Pollution; none of us are supporting putting substances into the  atmosphere or the waterways that might be pollutants, but carbon dioxide  is not a pollutant.

evidence_id: Air pollution:211

article: Air pollution

evidence: These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.

evidence_id: Air pollution:22

article: Air pollution

evidence: Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: Carbon dioxide (CO 2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant".

evidence_id: Fossil fuel power station:81

article: Fossil fuel power station

evidence: In these modern designs, pollution from coal-fired power plants comes from the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide into the air, as well a significant volume of wastewater which may contain lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, as well as arsenic, selenium and nitrogen compounds (nitrates and nitrites).

evidence_id: Fossil fuel power station:9

article: Fossil fuel power station

evidence: Flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels contains carbon dioxide and water vapor, as well as pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and, for coal-fired plants, mercury, traces of other metals, and fly ash.

article: Pollution

evidence: Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles.


text: If Senator Wong was really serious about her  science she would stop breathing because you inhale air that's got 385  parts per million carbon dioxide in it

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_id: Air pollution:25

article: Air pollution

evidence: CO 2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and billions of metric tons of CO 2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.

evidence_id: Indoor air quality:115

article: Indoor air quality

evidence: European standards limit carbon dioxide to 3,500 ppm.

evidence_id: Natural gas:79

article: Natural gas

evidence: Excluding water vapor, about half of landfill gas is methane and most of the rest is carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and variable trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide and siloxanes.

evidence_id: Respiratory system:131

article: Respiratory system

evidence: Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a partial pressure of CO2 of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli.

evidence_id: Respiratory system:177

article: Respiratory system

evidence: Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa).


text: Temperature errors in the Great Lakes region are not incorporated in any of the global mean temperature records.

evidence_id: Glossary of geography terms:317

article: Glossary of geography terms

evidence: Geostatistical algorithms are often incorporated in GIS software applications.

evidence_id: Glossary of geography terms:808

article: Glossary of geography terms

evidence: It is characterized by high annual precipitation and the absence of any significant seasonal variation in temperature.

article: Norway

evidence: Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation.

article: Norway

evidence: Temperature anomalies found in coastal locations are exceptional, with Røst and Værøy lacking a meteorological winter in spite of being north of the Arctic Circle.

article: Precipitation

evidence: As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.


text: "Global warming data apparently cooked by U.S. government-funded body  shows astounding temperature fraud with increases averaging 10 to 15  degrees Fahrenheit.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:285

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: "A projected increase of 4.05 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature is expected by 2065, and a projected increase of 9.37 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature can be expected by the turn of the century if nothing is done to curb emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:150

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: According to a 2006 paper from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, "the earth would warm by 8 degrees Celsius (14.4 degrees Fahrenheit) if humans use the entire planet's available fossil fuels by the year 2300."

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:957

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: "Modeling of long-term fossil fuel consumption shows 14.5-degree hike in Earth's temperature".

evidence_id: Global warming:318

article: Global warming

evidence: Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO 2 to be around 5-6 °C.

evidence_id: Global warming:67

article: Global warming

evidence: The 10th Emissions Gap Report issued by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that if emissions continue to increase at the same rate as they have in 2010–2020, global temperatures would rise by as much as 4° by 2100.


text: The tax-payer funded National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  (NOAA) has become mired in fresh global warming data scandal involving  numbers for the Great Lakes region that substantially ramp up averages."

evidence: NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to provide understanding and improve stewardship of the environment.

evidence_id: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:145

evidence: Feds close 600 weather stations amid criticism they're situated to report warming".

evidence_id: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:21

evidence: In 2013, NOAA closed 600 weather stations.

evidence_id: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:37

evidence: NOAA data is also relevant to the issues of global warming and ozone depletion.

evidence_id: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:67

evidence: AOML's research spans hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, oceans and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations.


text: Soares looks at short-term trends which are swamped by natural variations.

article: Phenotype

evidence: Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection.

article: Phenotype

evidence: Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection.

article: Species

evidence: It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection.

article: Species

evidence: He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

article: Species

evidence: Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by natural selection from naturally occurring variation among individuals.


text: The long-term correlation between CO2 and temperature is well established.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):78

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: During the glacial cycles, there was a high correlation between CO 2 concentrations and temperatures.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:130

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Correlation of CO 2 and temperature is not part of this evidence.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:892

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: "Coherence established between atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperature".

evidence_id: Ice core:193

article: Ice core

evidence: Further research has demonstrated a reliable correlation between CO 2 levels and the temperature calculated from ice isotope data.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: There is also a close correlation between CO2 and temperature, where CO2 has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth history.


text: CO2 changes are closely related to temperature.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Carbon capture and storage:415

article: Carbon capture and storage

evidence: These three changes are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is due to the high pressure of its dense atmosphere, and the greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:0

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity is the globally averaged temperature change in response to changes in radiative forcing, which can occur, for instance, due to increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:28

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: A related concept is the transient climate response to cumulative carbon emissions, which is the globally averaged surface temperature change per unit of CO 2 emitted.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:51

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The sensitivity of temperature to atmospheric gasses, most notably CO 2, is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:7

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The transient climate response (TCR) is the amount of temperature increase that might occur at the time when CO2 doubles, having increased gradually by 1% each year.


text: Warmer seasons or triennial phases are followed by an atmosphere that is rich in CO2, reflecting the gas solving or exsolving from water, and not photosynthesis activity.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:249

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:153

article: Global warming

evidence: Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in dissolved CO2, which causes ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:128

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity, but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:302

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: This is the case for CO 2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).

article: Water

evidence: Water also dissolves many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide—the latter giving the fizz of carbonated beverages, sparkling wines and beers.


text: Claims have recently surfaced in the blogosphere that an increasing number of scientists are warning of an imminent global cooling, some even going so far as to call it a "growing consensus".

evidence_id: Global cooling:117

article: Global cooling

evidence: Scientists said that "abrupt climate change initiated by Greenland ice sheet melting is not a realistic scenario for the 21st century".

evidence_id: Global cooling:2

article: Global cooling

evidence: The current scientific consensus on climate change is that the Earth underwent global warming throughout the 20th century and continues to warm.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:1

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:727

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Despite increasing consensus on the science underpinning predictions of global climate change, doubts have been expressed recently about the need to mitigate the risks posed by global climate change.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.


text: "The climate of this planet oscillates between periods of approximately  30 years of warming followed by approximately 30 years of cooling.

article: Climate

evidence: Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.

article: Climate

evidence: temperature) over a 30-year period.

article: Eocene

evidence: The transition from a warming climate into a cooling climate began at ~49 million years ago.

evidence_id: Ice age:0

article: Ice age

evidence: An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers.

article: Mesozoic

evidence: The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods.


text: Rather than 100 years of unprecedented global warming as predicted by  IPCC, the global temperatures have leveled off and we seem to be heading  for cooler weather."

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:157

evidence: "Robust findings" of the Synthesis report include: "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:150

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human-caused increases in greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed global average surface warming of roughly 0.8 °C (1.5 °F) over the past 140 years.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:719

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: On the basis of available data, climate scientists are now projecting an average global temperature rise over this century of 2.0 to 4.5°C.


text: It’s usually taken to be the fact that as carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere increase, the 1 per cent of CO2 that’s the heavier carbon isotope ratio c13 declines in proportion.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:18

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The global mean CO 2 concentration is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:204

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the increased uptake of carbon dioxide into the oceans is causing a measurable decrease in the pH of the oceans, which is referred to as ocean acidification.

article: Eocene

evidence: The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:127

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.


text: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

article: Reason

evidence: The reasoning in this argument is valid, because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:395

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: "It is likely that increases in GHG concentrations alone would have caused more warming than observed because volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols have offset some warming that would otherwise have taken place."

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:47

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: According to this summary, the Fourth Assessment Report found that human actions are "very likely" the cause of global warming, meaning a 90% or greater probability.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:678

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The statement concludes with a call for "reduction in anthropogenic (human-caused) sources of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global climate change and the conservation of CO 2- consuming photosynthesizers (i.e., plants)."

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:692

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


text: Various independent measurements of solar activity all confirm the sun has shown a slight cooling trend since 1978.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:188

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Since 1978, output from the Sun has been measured by satellites significantly more accurately than was previously possible from the surface.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:189

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance has not increased since 1978, so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be directly attributed to an increase in total solar energy reaching the Earth (see graph above, left).

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:190

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: In the three decades since 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity probably had a slight cooling influence on the climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:21

article: Global warming

evidence: Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

evidence_id: Solar activity and climate:16

article: Solar activity and climate

evidence: In the three decades following 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence.


text: There is no single continuous satellite measurement of Total Solar Irradiance (TSI).

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:56

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: The space-based TSI record comprises measurements from more than ten radiometers spanning three solar cycles.

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:64

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment/Total Irradiance Measurement (SORCE/TIM) TSI values are lower than prior measurements by the Earth Radiometer Budget Experiment (ERBE) on the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), VIRGO on the Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SoHO) and the ACRIM instruments on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) and ACRIMSAT.

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:9

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) is a measure of the solar power over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere.

article: Sunlight

evidence: Total solar irradiance (TSI) – the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere – has been measured since 1978 by a series of overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.365 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²).

evidence_id: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite:65

article: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

evidence: The ACRIM2 instrument on the UARS satellite measured the total solar irradiance (TSI), the total solar radiant energy reaching Earth, continuing the climate change database begun in 1980 by the ACRIM1 experiment on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM).


text: The two most cited composites are PMOD and ACRIM.

evidence_id: Catalan pseudoprime:0

article: Catalan pseudoprime

evidence: In mathematics, a Catalan pseudoprime is an odd composite number n satisfying the congruence ( − 1 ) n − 1 2 ⋅ C n − 1 2 ≡ 2 ( mod n ) , {\displaystyle (-1)^{\frac {n-1}{2}}\cdot C_{\frac {n-1}{2}}\equiv 2{\pmod {n}},} where Cm denotes the m-th Catalan number.

evidence_id: Lucas pseudoprime:105

article: Lucas pseudoprime

evidence: A Pell pseudoprime may be defined as a composite number n for which equation (1) above is true with P = 2 and Q = −1; the sequence Un then being the Pell sequence.

evidence_id: Lucas pseudoprime:92

article: Lucas pseudoprime

evidence: A Fibonacci pseudoprime is often defined as a composite number n not divisible by 5 for which congruence (1) holds with P = 1 and Q = −1 (but n is ).

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:107

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: In 2014 a new ACRIM composite was developed using the updated ACRIM3 record.

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:72

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: Examples include the issue of the irradiance increase between cycle minima in 1986 and 1996, evident only in the ACRIM composite (and not the model) and the low irradiance levels in the PMOD composite during the 2008 minimum.


text: In particular, PMOD alters the data from the Nimbus7/ERB record from 1989 to 1991.

evidence_id: Chinese remainder theorem:113

article: Chinese remainder theorem

evidence: However, the two other versions make sense over a principal ideal domain R: it suffices to replace "integer" by "element of the domain" and Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } by R. These two versions of the theorem are true in this context, because the proofs (except for the first existence proof), are based on Euclid's lemma and Bézout's identity, which are true over every principal domain.

evidence_id: International Standard Book Number:77

article: International Standard Book Number

evidence: when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits.

evidence_id: Legendre symbol:2

article: Legendre symbol

evidence: The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1798 in the course of his attempts at proving the law of quadratic reciprocity.

evidence_id: Modular multiplicative inverse:0

article: Modular multiplicative inverse

evidence: In mathematics, in particular the area of number theory, a modular multiplicative inverse of an integer a is an integer x such that the product ax is congruent to 1 with respect to the modulus m. In the standard notation of modular arithmetic this congruence is written as a x ≡ 1 ( mod m ) , {\displaystyle ax\equiv 1{\pmod {m}},} which is the shorthand way of writing the statement that m divides (evenly) the quantity ax − 1, or, put another way, the remainder after dividing ax by the integer m is 1.

evidence_id: Solar irradiance:116

article: Solar irradiance

evidence: These arise from the fact that ACRIM uses the original TSI results published by the satellite experiment teams while PMOD significantly modifies some results to conform them to specific TSI proxy models.


text: Even if the warming were as big as the IPCC imagines, it would not be as dangerous as Mr. Brown suggests.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:135

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: His study assumes that no efforts are made to reduce anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, leading to global warming of 3.3 °C above the pre-industrial level.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:230

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Orrell says that the range of future increase in temperature suggested by the IPCC rather represents a social consensus in the climate community, but adds "we are having a dangerous effect on the climate".

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:36

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: It is likely that greenhouse gases would have caused more warming than we have observed if not for the cooling effects of volcanic and human-caused aerosols.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:127

evidence: Since the mid-20th century, most of the observed warming is "likely" (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement) due to human activities.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:459

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.


text: Cooks ’97% consensus’ disproven by a new peer

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:10

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Of these, 97% agree, explicitly or implicitly, that global warming is happening and is human-caused.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:294

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Over 99.99% of climate scientists did not reject AGW in their peer-reviewed research.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:295

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: James Lawrence Powell reported 2017 that using rejection as the criterion of consensus, five surveys of the peer-reviewed literature from 1991 to 2015, including several of those above, combine to 54,195 articles with an average consensus of 99.94%.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:296

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: In November 2019, his survey of over 11,600 peer-reviewed articles published in the first seven months of 2019 showed that the consensus had reached 100%.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:3

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: A November 2019 study showed that the consensus among research scientists had grown to 100%, based on a review of 11,602 peer-reviewed articles published in the first 7 months of 2019.


text: When CO2 emissions are compared directly to CO2 levels, there is a strong correlation in the long term trends.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:148

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: However, the Stern report, like many other reports, notes the past correlation between CO 2 emissions and economic growth and then extrapolates using a "business as usual" scenario to predict GDP growth and hence CO 2 levels, concluding that: Increasing scarcity of fossil fuels alone will not stop emissions growth in time.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:101

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Both CO 2 and CH 4 vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases correlate strongly with temperature.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:102

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates CO 2 mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:244

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.

evidence_id: Ice core:193

article: Ice core

evidence: Further research has demonstrated a reliable correlation between CO 2 levels and the temperature calculated from ice isotope data.


text: Over the three years from 1979 to 1982 when CO2 emissions were decreasing due to the rapid increase in the price of oil that drastically reduced consumption, there was no change in the rate of increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 proving that humans were not the primary source for the increase in concentration.'

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:182

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation have caused the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide to increase by about 43% since the beginning of the age of industrialization.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:183

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Between the period 1970 to 2004, greenhouse gas emissions (measured in CO 2-equivalent) increased at an average rate of 1.6% per year, with CO 2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9% per year.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:77

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.

evidence_id: World energy consumption:111

article: World energy consumption

evidence: After the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, during which the price of oil increased from 5 to 45 US dollars per barrel, there was a shift away from oil.


text: The contribution of waste heat to the global climate is 0.028 W/m2.

evidence_id: Waste heat:58

article: Waste heat

evidence: In cities this source typically contributes 15–50 W/m2 to the local heat balance, and several hundred W/m2 in the center of large cities in cold climates and industrial areas."

evidence_id: Waste heat:63

article: Waste heat

evidence: Anthropogenic heat is a much smaller contributor to global warming than are greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Waste heat:65

article: Waste heat

evidence: For example, waste heat flux was +0.39 and +0.68 W/m2 for the continental United States and western Europe, respectively) globally it accounted for only 1% of the energy flux created by anthropogenic greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Waste heat:66

article: Waste heat

evidence: Global forcing from waste heat was 0.028 W/m2 in 2005.

evidence_id: Waste heat:69

article: Waste heat

evidence: Equilibrium climate experiments show statistically significant continental-scale surface warming (0.4–0.9 °C) produced by one 2100 AHF scenario, but not by current or 2040 estimates.


text: "Global warming is mostly due to heat production by human industry since the 1800s, from nuclear power and fossil fuels, better termed hydrocarbons, – coal, oil, natural gas.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:186

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: At present, the primary source of CO 2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:7

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion and agriculture (including livestock).

article: Hydrocarbon

evidence: Burning hydrocarbons as fuel, producing carbon dioxide and water, is a major contributor to anthropogenic global warming.

evidence_id: Natural gas:0

article: Natural gas

evidence: Natural gas (also called fossil gas) is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium.

evidence_id: Natural gas:3

article: Natural gas

evidence: Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation.


text: Also, it's not yet clear whether changes in stratospheric water vapor are caused by a climate feedback or internal variability

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):41

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Natural changes in the climate system result in internal "climate variability".

article: Cloud

evidence: Broadly speaking, if clouds, especially low clouds, increase in a warmer climate, the resultant cooling effect leads to a negative feedback in climate response to increased greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:131

article: Global warming

evidence: Models not only project different future temperature with different emissions of greenhouse gases, but also do not fully agree on the strength of different feedbacks on climate sensitivity and the amount of inertia of the system.

evidence_id: Global warming:49

article: Global warming

evidence: Attributing detected temperature changes and extreme events to human-caused increases in greenhouse gases requires scientists to rule out known internal climate variability and natural external forcings.

evidence_id: Global warming:832

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use."


text: According to the study, as carbon levels have risen, the cold air at high altitudes over the tropics has actually grown colder.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:191

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

article: Eocene

evidence: The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles.

evidence_id: Global warming:322

article: Global warming

evidence: 1950s military research found less saturation of the greenhouse effect at high altitudes.

article: Troposphere

evidence: The tropopause is an inversion layer, where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness.


text: The lower temperatures at this "coldest point" have caused global water vapor levels to drop, even as carbon levels rise.

evidence_id: Atmosphere of Venus:116

article: Atmosphere of Venus

evidence: In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C).

article: Eocene

evidence: These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

evidence_id: Snowball Earth:668

article: Snowball Earth

evidence: "High levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide necessary for the termination of global glaciation".

article: Troposphere

evidence: At the equator, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 20 °C (68-degree Fahrenheit) at sea level to about −70 to −75 °C (-94 to -103-degree Fahrenheit) at the tropopause.

evidence_id: Water on Mars:430

article: Water on Mars

evidence: At this location, the highest temperature never reached the freezing point of water (0 °C (32 °F; 273 K)), too cold for pure liquid water to exist on the surface.


text: Water vapor helps trap heat, and is a far the strongest of the major greenhouse gases, contributing 36–72 percent of the greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:13

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: From 1859 onwards, he showed that the effect was due to a very small proportion of the atmosphere, with the main gases having no effect, and was largely due to water vapour, though small percentages of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide had a significant effect.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:30

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: However radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:45

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are: water vapor, 36–70% carbon dioxide, 9–26% methane, 4–9% ozone, 3–7% It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above).

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:172

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds.

evidence_id: Water vapor:110

article: Water vapor

evidence: Water vapor is the most potent greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red region of the light spectrum.


text: Thus rather than a "doomsday" cycle of runaway warming, Mother Earth appears surprisingly tolerant of carbon, decreasing atmospheric levels of water vapor -- a more effective greenhouse gas -- to compensate.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:181

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:182

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Eventually other earth processes offset these positive feedbacks, stabilizing the global temperature at a new equilibrium and preventing the loss of Earth's water through a Venus-like runaway greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Runaway greenhouse effect:19

article: Runaway greenhouse effect

evidence: An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth.

evidence_id: Runaway greenhouse effect:24

article: Runaway greenhouse effect

evidence: A planet's outgoing longwave radiation is limited by this evaporated water, which is an effective greenhouse gas and blocks additional infrared radiation as it accumulates in the atmosphere.

article: Water

evidence: Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature.


text: Statistical analysis of the rate of warming over different periods find that warming from 1970 to 2001 is greater than the warming from both 1860 to 1880 and 1910 to 1940.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:72

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0.65 °C (1.17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record).

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:16

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: It is a major aspect of climate change, and has been demonstrated by the instrumental temperature record which shows global warming of around 1 °C since the pre-industrial period, although the bulk of this (0.9°C) has occurred since 1970.

evidence_id: Global warming:21

article: Global warming

evidence: Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:6

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the time before and after.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:331

article: Urban heat island

evidence: For example, Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend (for 1979–2002) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied—which had already been processed to remove the (modeled) UHI contribution.


text: Despite the logarithmic relationship between CO2 and surface temperatures, atmospheric CO2 levels are rising so fast that unless we dramatically decrease our emissions, global warming will accelerate over the 21st Century.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:21

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:146

article: Global warming

evidence: Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:227

article: Global warming

evidence: To keep warming below 2 °C, more stringent emission reductions in the near-term would allow for less rapid reductions after 2030.


text: As a result, the planet as a whole is becoming less reflective and absorbing more sunlight, which is accelerating global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:116

article: Global warming

evidence: If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

evidence_id: Global warming:437

article: Global warming

evidence: This effect results in the increased absorption of radiation that accelerates melting."

evidence_id: Global warming:77

article: Global warming

evidence: For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight.

evidence_id: Global warming:81

article: Global warming

evidence: In the tropics the net effect is to produce a significant warming, while at latitudes closer to the poles a loss of albedo leads to an overall cooling effect.

evidence_id: Global warming:92

article: Global warming

evidence: Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea level rise.


text: While preventing global warming is relatively cheap, economists can't even accurately estimate the accelerating costs of climate damages if we continue with business-as-usual.

evidence_id: Carbon tax:4

article: Carbon tax

evidence: Economists generally argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse effects on the economy.

evidence_id: Economics of global warming:415

article: Economics of global warming

evidence: No models suggest that the optimal policy is to do nothing, i.e., allow "business-as-usual" emissions.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:257

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Researchers have warned that current economic modeling may seriously underestimate the impact of potentially catastrophic climate change and point to the need for new models that give a more accurate picture of potential damages.

evidence_id: Stern Review:213

article: Stern Review

evidence: Economists have different views over the cost estimates of climate change mitigation given in the Review.

evidence_id: Stern Review:57

article: Stern Review

evidence: Some economists have argued that the Review overestimates the present value of the costs of climate change, and underestimates the costs of emission reduction.


text: Yet the cost of doing something will likely be higher than 6 per cent of GDP" (Bjorn Lomborg)

evidence_id: Bjørn Lomborg:116

article: Bjørn Lomborg

evidence: He argues that "... the cost and benefits of the proposed measures against global warming.

evidence_id: Stern Review:26

article: Stern Review

evidence: 'Central estimates of the annual costs of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550ppm CO2e are around 1% of global GDP, if we start to take strong action now.

evidence_id: United Kingdom:2612

article: United Kingdom

evidence: This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.

evidence_id: United Kingdom:305

article: United Kingdom

evidence: The UK service sector makes up around 79 per cent of GDP.

evidence_id: United Kingdom:543

article: United Kingdom

evidence: The UK spends around 8.4 per cent of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.


text: The measurements of the amount of CO2 made at the Mauna Loa Observatory are accurate and uncontaminated by any emissions from the volcano.

evidence_id: Mauna Loa Observatory:1

article: Mauna Loa Observatory

evidence: Since 1958, initially under the direction of Charles Keeling, followed by his son Ralph and later Elmer Robinson, Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) has been monitoring and collecting data relating to atmospheric change, and is known especially for the continuous monitoring of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), which is sometimes referred to as the Keeling Curve.

evidence_id: Mauna Loa Observatory:16

article: Mauna Loa Observatory

evidence: The contamination from local volcanic sources is sometimes detected at the observatory, and is then removed from the background data.

evidence_id: Mauna Loa Observatory:3

article: Mauna Loa Observatory

evidence: According to the NOAA, Mauna Loa is the world's oldest continuous CO2 monitoring station, and the world's primary benchmark site for measurement of the gas.

evidence_id: Mauna Loa Observatory:4

article: Mauna Loa Observatory

evidence: The latest observation of CO2 concentrations from MLO can be found at web sites along with data from other sites and trends at Mauna Loa.

evidence_id: Mauna Loa:232

article: Mauna Loa

evidence: Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO2 from the volcano.


text: 'Mauna Loa has been producing a readout which supports Manning's predetermined goal by showing steady growth in atmospheric CO2 concentrations since 1959.

evidence_id: Global warming:61

article: Global warming

evidence: In 2013, CO2 readings taken at the world's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassing 400 ppm for the first time.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:52

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: Measurements of CO 2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm) in 1960, passing the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013.

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:20

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: The measurements collected at Mauna Loa Observatory show a steady increase in mean atmospheric CO 2 concentration from 313 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in March 1958 to 406 ppmv in November 2018, with an increase of ~2 ppmv CO 2 per year.

article: Mauna Loa Observatory

article: Mauna Loa Observatory


text: The trend in CO2 at Mauna Loa is practically identical to the global trend because CO2 mixes well throughout the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:246

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: "Up-to-date weekly average CO 2 at Mauna Loa".

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Ecosystem ecology:49

article: Ecosystem ecology

evidence: Figure 4 shows seasonal and annual changes in CO2 concentration measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii from 1987 to 1990.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:300

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:70

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: This figure accounts for CO 2 molecules being removed from the atmosphere by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, and other processes.


text: The influence of the volcano is easily spotted and removed, together with other even more important spurious influences.

article: Kīlauea

evidence: Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominantly from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcano's height, result in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank.

evidence_id: Level Mountain:125

article: Level Mountain

evidence: This tremendous variation in the erupted magmas and influence of adjacent vents gave rise to a high and volumnous complex bimodal stratovolcano centrally located atop the shield.

article: Ovid

evidence: In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his enumeration, in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.

article: Socompa

evidence: Groundwater is warmer and richer in CO 2 the closer to Socompa it is pumped, also suggesting that volcanic gas fluxes still occur at the volcano and that the volcano influences groundwater systems.

evidence_id: Under the Volcano:174

article: Under the Volcano

evidence: The influence of Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus runs throughout the novel, and references to Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal, William Shakespeare's tragedies, and Dante's Divine Comedy enrich the novel's meaning.


text: Venus is not hot because of a runaway greenhouse.

evidence_id: Carl Sagan:138

article: Carl Sagan

evidence: He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:6

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The planet Venus experienced runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, with surface atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth.

evidence_id: Runaway greenhouse effect:57

article: Runaway greenhouse effect

evidence: Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light.

article: Venus

evidence: It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect.

article: Venus

evidence: The CO 2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).


text: "The solar system oscillates with a 60-year cycle due to the Jupiter/Saturn three-synodic cycle and to a Jupiter/Saturn beat tidal cycle...

evidence_id: Jupiter trojan:106

article: Jupiter trojan

evidence: This occurred when the period of the trojans' libration about their Lagrangian point had a 3:1 ratio to the period at which the position where Jupiter passes Saturn circulated relative to its perihelion.

evidence_id: Orbital resonance:98

article: Orbital resonance

evidence: As mentioned above, Gliese 876 e, b and c are in a Laplace resonance, with a 4:2:1 ratio of periods (124.3, 61.1 and 30.0 days).

article: Saturn

evidence: "Modeling the 5 : 2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter-Saturn Planetary System".

evidence_id: Tibetan calendar:7

article: Tibetan calendar

evidence: From the 12th century onwards, we observe the usage of two sixty-year cycles.

article: Year

evidence: The Galactic year is the time it takes Earth's Solar System to revolve once around the galactic center.


text: About 60% of the warming observed from 1970 to 2000 was very likely caused by the above natural 60-year climatic cycle during its warming phase" (Loehle and Scafetta)

evidence_id: Global warming:55

article: Global warming

evidence: Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.

article: Holocene

evidence: "Centennial-scale climate cooling with a sudden event around 8,200 years ago".

article: Holocene

evidence: This period of warmth ended about 5,500 years ago with the descent into the Neoglacial and concomitant Neopluvial.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:190

evidence: It is extremely likely (95-100% probability) that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951-2010.

evidence_id: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum:26

article: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

evidence: These can be defined as geologically brief (<200,000 year) events characterized by rapid global warming, major changes in the environment, and massive carbon addition.


text: There seems to be evidence for a link between solar activity and water levels.

evidence_id: Aeolis quadrangle:1012

article: Aeolis quadrangle

evidence: "High Concentrations of Silica Indicate Considerable Water Activity on Mars – SpaceRef".

evidence_id: Gale (crater):70

article: Gale (crater)

evidence: On November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars.

evidence_id: Ice age:146

article: Ice age

evidence: In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for the earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

evidence_id: Ice age:147

article: Ice age

evidence: There is considerable evidence that over the very recent period of the last 100–1000 years, the sharp increases in human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, has caused the parallel sharp and accelerating increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases which trap the sun's heat.

evidence_id: Lakes on Mars:86

article: Lakes on Mars

evidence: Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water.


text: However, more direct comparisons between solar activity and global temperature finds that  as the sun grew hotter or cooler, Earth's climate followed it with a 10 year lag - presumably due to the dampening effect of the ocean.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:300

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in a thermal expansion of the oceans which contribute to sea-level rise.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:236

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: (2009) found that the evidence showed that connections between solar variation and climate were more likely to be mediated by direct variation of insolation rather than cosmic rays, and concluded: "Hence within our assumptions, the effect of varying solar activity, either by direct solar irradiance or by varying cosmic ray rates, must be less than 0.07 °C since 1956, i.e.

evidence_id: Global warming:100

article: Global warming

evidence: Another line of evidence for the warming not being due to the Sun is how temperature changes differ at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:26

article: Global warming

evidence: Although the most common measure of global warming is the increase in the near-surface atmospheric temperature, over 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system over the last 50 years has warmed ocean water.

article: Sun

evidence: However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today.


text: Also found was that the correlation between solar activity and global temperatures ended around 1975, hence recent warming must have some other cause than solar variations.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Solar activity and climate:70

article: Solar activity and climate

evidence: Neither direct measurements nor proxies of solar variation correlate well with Earth global temperature, particularly in recent decades when both quantities are best known.

evidence_id: Solar activity and climate:84

article: Solar activity and climate

evidence: Scafetta and West correlated solar proxy data and lower tropospheric temperature for the preindustrial era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and 2000 (although they conclude "our estimates about the solar effect on climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper limit.")

evidence_id: Solar activity and climate:95

article: Solar activity and climate

evidence: In 1991, Friis-Christensen and Lassen claimed a strong correlation of the length of the solar cycle with northern hemispheric temperature changes.

article: Sun

evidence: Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.


text: A South African paper has found a 21 year cycle synchronous with the solar cycle (Alexander 2007).

evidence_id: Ice age:182

article: Ice age

evidence: The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

evidence_id: Leap year:0

article: Leap year

evidence: A leap year (also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year) is a calendar year containing an additional day (or, in the case of lunisolar calendars, a month) added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year.

evidence_id: Leap year:109

article: Leap year

evidence: The Bahá'í calendar is a solar calendar composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days).

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:162

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has, for the past 2,000 years, caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend that continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age.

article: Moon

evidence: One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223 months (or 18 years).


text: Some of the regions in which  GRACE claims ice loss in East Antarctica average colder than -30°C  during the summer, and never, ever get above freezing.

article: Antarctica

evidence: East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation.

article: Antarctica

evidence: The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) (or even −94.7 °C (−135.8 °F) as measured from space), though the average for the third quarter (the coldest part of the year) is −63 °C (−81 °F).

evidence_id: East Antarctic Ice Sheet:4

article: East Antarctic Ice Sheet

evidence: The EAIS is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth, with temperatures reported down to nearly -100°C.

evidence_id: East Antarctica:11

article: East Antarctica

evidence: East Antarctica is generally higher than West Antarctica, and is considered the coldest place on Earth.

evidence_id: Global warming in Antarctica:29

article: Global warming in Antarctica

evidence: East Antarctica appears to have experienced a net gain of a relatively small amount of ice during the 25-years although uncertainty is greater due to subsidence of the underlying bedrock.


text: Unlike the simple example of positive feedback we learned in high school, the increase from every round of feedback gets smaller and smaller, in the case of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:128

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the increase in water vapor content makes the atmosphere warm further; this warming causes the atmosphere to hold still more water vapor (a positive feedback), and so on until other processes stop the feedback loop.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:2

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:73

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: This releases more stored carbon into the atmosphere than the carbon cycle can naturally re-absorb, as well as reducing the overall forest area on the planet, creating a positive feedback loop.

evidence_id: Negative feedback:49

article: Negative feedback

evidence: In contrast, positive feedback is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization.

evidence_id: Positive feedback:1

article: Positive feedback

evidence: That is, the effects of a perturbation on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation.


text: Consequently, CO2 levels at around 1,000 to 2,300 ppm were actually low enough to promote glaciation in the southern continent of Gondwana.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:5

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: Concentrations of CO 2 in the atmosphere were as high as 4,000 parts per million (ppm, on a molar basis) during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:51

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: Decreasing CO 2 concentration, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:250

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (410 ppm), depending on the location.

article: Gondwana

evidence: However, strong evidence exists of glaciation during the Carboniferous to Permian time, especially in South Africa.

article: Supercontinent

evidence: During the late Ordovician (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO2 levels to occur at the same time.


text: Since rock weathering reduces atmospheric CO2, this again reinforces the scientific fact that CO2 is a strong driver of climate.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:221

article: Climate change denial

evidence: There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:139

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The primary driver of this is the ocean, which absorbs anthropogenic CO2 via the so-called solubility pump.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:143

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: With current global warming, weathering is increasing, demonstrating significant feedbacks between climate and Earth surface.

evidence_id: Global warming:1

article: Global warming

evidence: It is a major aspect of climate change and has been demonstrated by direct temperature measurements and by measurements of various effects of the warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:362

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".


text: Clearly, other factors besides atmospheric carbon influence earth temperatures and global warming."

evidence_id: Carbon cycle:58

article: Carbon cycle

evidence: It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.

article: Climate

evidence: Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling.

evidence_id: Global warming:174

article: Global warming

evidence: It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels and higher global temperatures.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:77

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.


text: Hocker is claiming that his model shows that the long-term upward trend in CO2 is explained by temperature, when his methods actually removed the long-term trend.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):216

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming."

article: Climate

evidence: These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

evidence_id: General circulation model:129

article: General circulation model

evidence: Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

evidence_id: General circulation model:131

article: General circulation model

evidence: These models project an upward trend in the surface temperature record, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher altitudes.

evidence_id: Global warming:317

article: Global warming

evidence: In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, showing that halving of CO 2 could have produced the drop in temperature initiating the ice age.


text: Thousands of coral atolls have "drowned" in the past when they were unable to grow fast enough to maintain a presence at sea level

article: Kiribati

evidence: However, if the increase in sea level occurs at a rate faster than coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.

article: Maldives

evidence: More than 80 per cent of the country's land is composed of coral islands which rise less than one metre above sea level.

article: Maldives

evidence: As a result, the Maldives are at high risk of being submerged due to rising sea levels.

article: Micronesia

evidence: When the volcano sinks back down into the sea, the coral continues to grow, keeping the reef at or above water level.

article: Tuvalu

evidence: Mean sea-level rise is projected to continue (very high confidence).


text: There are many lines of evidence which clearly show that the atmospheric CO2 increase is caused by humans.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:84

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: The first line of evidence is based on a physical understanding of how greenhouse gases trap heat, how the climate system responds to increases in greenhouse gases, and how other human and natural factors influence climate.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:186

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Human activities have caused CO 2 to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:115

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The spatial and temporal fingerprint of warming can be traced to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, which are a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:130

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.


text: The clearest of these is simple accounting - humans are emitting CO2 at a rate twice as fast as the atmospheric increase (natural sinks are absorbing the other half).

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:203

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of CO 2 emitted by human activity.

evidence_id: Carbon sink:49

article: Carbon sink

evidence: Presently, oceans are CO2 sinks, and represent the largest active carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that humans put into the air.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:14

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:16

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:6

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: This increase has occurred despite the uptake of more than half of the emissions by various natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle.


text: There is no question whatsoever that the CO2 increase is human-caused.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:130

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:229

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:244

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.


text: that atmospheric CO2 increase that we observe is a product of temperature  increase, and not the other way around, meaning it is a product of  natural variation...

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

article: Eocene

evidence: These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

evidence_id: Global warming:3

article: Global warming

evidence: But, more accurately, global warming is the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, while climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:9

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The result, however, is an increase in temperature in both cases.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:310

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.


text: Once natural influences, in particular the impact of El Niño and La Niña, are removed from the recent termperature record, there is no evidence of a significant change in the human contribution to climate change.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):229

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

evidence_id: El Niño:6

article: El Niño

evidence: The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall.

evidence_id: Global warming:52

article: Global warming

evidence: Scientists have determined that the major factors causing the current climate change are greenhouse gases, land use changes, and aerosols and soot.

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:692

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


text: "...there has been no increase in the global average surface temperature for the past 16 years" (Judith Curry and David Rose)

evidence_id: Global warming:146

article: Global warming

evidence: Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

article: Paleocene

evidence: In the Paleocene, with a global average temperature of about 24–25 °C (75–77 °F), compared to 14 °C (57 °F) in more recent times, the Earth had a greenhouse climate without permanent ice sheets at the poles, like the preceding Mesozoic.

article: Paleocene

evidence: The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum was an approximate 200,000 year long event where the global average temperature rose by some 5 to 8 °C (9 to 14 °F), and mid-latitude and polar areas may have exceeded modern tropical temperatures of 24–29 °C (75–84 °F).

article: Paleocene

evidence: For comparison, the average global temperature for the period between 1951 and 1980 was 14 °C (57 °F).


text: "The observed data show that CFCs conspiring with cosmic rays most likely caused both the Antarctic ozone hole and global warming...

article: Antarctica

evidence: There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions, but this remains ambiguous.

article: Chlorofluorocarbon

evidence: "Ozone hole-forming chemical emissions increasing and mysterious source in East Asia may be responsible".

evidence_id: Cosmic ray:718

article: Cosmic ray

evidence: "Sun's Shifts May Cause Global Warming".

evidence_id: Cosmic ray:728

article: Cosmic ray

evidence: "No, a new study does not show cosmic-rays are connected to global warming".

evidence_id: The Great Global Warming Swindle:46

article: The Great Global Warming Swindle

evidence: The posited mechanism involves cosmic rays as well as heat from the sun aiding cloud formation.


text: Correspondingly, the global surface temperature has also dropped."

evidence_id: Deccan Traps:12

article: Deccan Traps

evidence: Data points to an average drop in temperature of about 2 °C (3.6 °F) in this period.

article: Eocene

evidence: These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

article: Sun

evidence: At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/6,000 the density of air at sea level).

article: Sun

evidence: Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.

evidence_id: Tropical cyclone:137

article: Tropical cyclone

evidence: All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.


text: Models and direct observations find that CFCs only contribute a fraction of the warming supplied by other greenhouse gases.

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

article: Chlorofluorocarbon

evidence: The strength of CFC absorption bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere at wavelengths where CFCs (indeed all covalent fluorine compounds) absorb creates a “super” greenhouse effect from CFCs and other unreactive fluorine-containing gases such as perfluorocarbons, HFCs, HCFCs, bromofluorocarbons, SF6, and NF3.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:138

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The seven sources of CO 2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004): Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N 2O) and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol international treaty, which came into force in 2005.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:142

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:57

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: The report shows in detail the individual warming contributions (positive forcing) of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, other human warming factors, and the warming effects of changes in solar activity.


text: This increases confidence in other peer-reviewed research predicting sea level rise of 80cm to 2 metres by 2100.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:164

article: Sea level rise

evidence: However, Greg Holland from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, who reviewed the study, noted: “There is no doubt that the sea level rise, within the IPCC, is a very conservative number, so the truth lies somewhere between IPCC and Jim.” In addition, one 2017 study's scenario, assuming high fossil fuel use for combustion and strong economic growth during this century, projects sea level rise of up to 132 cm (4.3 ft) on average — and an extreme scenario with as much as 189 cm (6.2 ft), by 2100.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:167

article: Sea level rise

evidence: According to the Fourth (2017) National Climate Assessment (NCA) of the United States it is very likely sea level will rise between 30 and 130 cm (1.0–4.3 feet) in 2100 compared to the year 2000.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:172

article: Sea level rise

evidence: In 2019, a study projected that in low emission scenario, sea level will rise 30 centimeters by 2050 and 69 centimetres by 2100, relatively to the level in 2000.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:174

article: Sea level rise

evidence: There is the probability that the rise will be beyond 2 metres by 2100 in the high emission scenario, which will cause displacement of 187 million people.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:328

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "The projections and results presented in several peer-reviewed publications provide evidence to support a physically plausible GMSL rise in the range of 2.0 meters (m) to 2.7 m, and recent results regarding Antarctic ice-sheet instability indicate that such outcomes may be more likely than previously thought."


text: 'Another global warming myth comes crashing down.

evidence_id: Flying Spaghetti Monster:12

article: Flying Spaghetti Monster

evidence: Henderson asserts that a decline in the number of pirates over the years is the cause of global warming.

evidence_id: James Delingpole:111

article: James Delingpole

evidence: The conspiracy behind the Anthropogenic Global Warming myth (aka AGW; aka ManBearPig) has been suddenly, brutally and quite deliciously exposed", and "A contretemps with a Climate Bully who wonders whether I have a science degree.

evidence_id: James Delingpole:18

article: James Delingpole

evidence: Delingpole has engaged in climate change denialism; in 2009 he wrote of "The conspiracy behind the Anthropogenic Global Warming myth".

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:133

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: Standard global warming theory predicts that the stratosphere will cool.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:820

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: Climate Change Myths and Realities.


text: No warming since at least 1995, no melting glaciers and now no rising sea levels.

evidence_id: Global warming:146

article: Global warming

evidence: Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:35

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: The Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record melting in recent years since detailed records have been kept and is likely to contribute substantially to sea level rise as well as to possible changes in ocean circulation in the future if this is sustained.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:99

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:3

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:4

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Between 1993 and 2018, thermal expansion of the oceans contributed 42% to sea level rise; the melting of temperate glaciers, 21%; Greenland, 15%; and Antarctica, 8%.


text: The claim that 2.2 conventional jobs are destroyed   for  every new job created in the alternative energy industry is based on a study which relies on incorrect numbers, cherrypicked dates, faulty theory, flawed methodology, and is disproven by real-world examples.

evidence_id: Alternative medicine:128

article: Alternative medicine

evidence: However, reassessments found the study to have flawed methodology.

article: Economics

evidence: Economics has been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions simplify the proofs of desired conclusions.

evidence_id: History of economic thought:542

article: History of economic thought

evidence: The Paul Samuelson's (1915–2009) Foundations of Economic Analysis published in 1947 was an attempt to show that mathematical methods could represent a core of testable economic theory.

evidence_id: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience:426

evidence: "Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability.

evidence_id: Minimum wage:94

article: Minimum wage

evidence: Michael Anyadike-Danes and Wynne Godley argue, based on simulation results, that little of the empirical work done with the textbook model constitutes a potentially falsifiable theory, and consequently empirical evidence hardly exists for that model.


text: for every renewable energy job that the State manages to finance, Spain’s experience...reveals with high confidence, by two different methods, that the U.S. should expect a loss of at least 2.2 jobs on average

article: California

evidence: As a result of the state's strong environmental movement, California has some of the most aggressive renewable energy goals in the United States, with a target for California to obtain a third of its electricity from renewables by 2020.

article: California

evidence: It would be possible to convert the total supply to 100% renewable energy, including heating, cooling and mobility, by 2050.

article: Spain

evidence: The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment rate began to steadily decline.

article: Spain

evidence: What the programme failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs.

evidence_id: United States:605

article: United States

evidence: It brought high unemployment (which has been decreasing but remains above pre-recession levels), along with low consumer confidence, the continuing decline in home values and increase in foreclosures and personal bankruptcies, an escalating federal debt crisis, inflation, and rising petroleum and food prices.


text: Continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century.

evidence_id: Global warming:155

article: Global warming

evidence: Many regions have probably already seen increases in warm spells and heat waves, and it is virtually certain that these changes will continue over the 21st century.

evidence_id: Global warming:7

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:310

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:98

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system", and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:38

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: It said that Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems.


text: So this is a government which is proposing to put at risk our manufacturing industry, to penalise struggling families, to make a tough situation worse for millions of households right around Australia.

evidence_id: Poverty in the United Kingdom:108

article: Poverty in the United Kingdom

evidence: John McDonnell said the IFS analysis showed a “clear threat” to working people’s living standards, while the Liberal Democrats said that the “savage cuts” would make millions of households poorer.

evidence_id: Poverty in the United Kingdom:115

article: Poverty in the United Kingdom

evidence: Families are forced into increasing poverty, some facing a daily struggle to pay their rent and put food on their table.

evidence_id: Poverty in the United Kingdom:161

article: Poverty in the United Kingdom

evidence: nearly 4 million UK children are judged to live in households that would find it difficult to afford enough fruit, vegetables and other healthy foods to reach official guidelines, the Food Foundation maintains.

evidence_id: Poverty in the United Kingdom:204

article: Poverty in the United Kingdom

evidence: The upcoming minimum wage rise will help, but many low-income working families will still find themselves worse off due to tax-credit changes.

evidence_id: Poverty in the United Kingdom:286

article: Poverty in the United Kingdom

evidence: Fuel poverty affects over a million British working households and over 2.3 million households in total and increases in energy prices affect poor people severely.


text: "a paper...in Science magazine concludes that the climate sensitivity—how much the earth’s average temperature will rise as a result of a doubling of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide—likely (that is, with a 66% probability) lies in the range 1.7°C to 2.6°C, with a median value of 2.3°C.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:4

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: When climate sensitivity is expressed for a doubling of CO2, its units are degrees Celsius (°C).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:53

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO 2 was doubled.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:58

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:6

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) is the temperature increase that would result from sustained doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, after the Earth's energy budget and the climate system reach radiative equilibrium.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:72

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: IPCC authors concluded ECS is very likely to be greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and likely to lie in the range 2 to 4.5 °C (4 to 8.1 °F), with a most likely value of about 3 °C (5 °F).


text: Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), in which the likely range is given as 2.0°C to 4.5°C, with a best estimate of 3.0°C" (Pat Michaels)

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:208

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In its 2007 Fourth Assessment Report, IPCC said that climate sensitivity is "likely to be in the range 2 to 4.5 °C with a best estimate of about 3 °C".

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:62

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: It is likely to be in the range of 2 to 4.5 °C, with a best estimate of about 3 °C.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:66

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: Surface air warming in the 21st century: Best estimate for a "low scenario" is 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F) Best estimate for a "high scenario" is 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F) A temperature rise of about 0.1 °C per decade would be expected for the next two decades, even if greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations were kept at year 2000 levels.

evidence_id: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:76

article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

evidence: Scenario B1 Best estimate temperature rise of 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F) Sea level rise likely range [18 to 38 cm] (7 to 15 inches) Scenario A1T Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F) Sea level rise likely range [20 to 45 cm] (8 to 18 inches) Scenario B2 Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F) Sea level rise likely range [20 to 43 cm] (8 to 17 inches) Scenario A1B Best estimate temperature rise of 2.8 °C with a likely range of 1.7 to 4.4 °C (5.0 °F with a likely range of 3.1 to 7.9 °F) Sea level rise likely range [21 to 48 cm] (8 to 19 inches) Scenario A2 Best estimate temperature rise of 3.4 °C with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.4 °C (6.1 °F with a likely range of 3.6 to 9.7 °F) Sea level rise likely range [23 to 51 cm] (9 to 20 inches) Scenario A1FI Best estimate temperature rise of 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F) Sea level rise likely range [26 to 59 cm] (10 to 23 inches) "Both past and future anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium, due to the timescales required for removal of this gas from the atmosphere."


text: Multiple lines of evidence indicate Greenland's ice loss is accelerating and will contribute sea level rise in the order of metres over the next few centuries.

article: Greenland

evidence: If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the world's sea level would rise by more than 7 m (23 ft).

article: Greenland

evidence: The glaciers of Greenland are also contributing to a rise in the global sea level faster than was previously believed.

article: Greenland

evidence: Findings show that Greenland has lost 3.8 trillion tonnes of ice since 1992, enough to raise sea levels by almost 11mm (1.06cm).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:123

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Estimates on future contribution to sea level rise from Greenland range from 0.3 to 3 metres (1 to 10 ft), for the year 2100.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:124

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The contribution of the Greenland ice sheet on sea level over the next couple of centuries can be very high due to a self-reinforcing cycle (a so-called positive feedback).