text: The Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1635 experienced a Category 3 or 4 storm, with up to a 20-foot storm surge.

evidence_id: Air National Guard:538

article: Air National Guard

evidence: The most severe damage came from a 30-plus-foot storm surge along the Mississippi coast and the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana and breaks in the levies along a canal in New Orleans.

evidence_id: Palm Beach County, Florida:50

article: Palm Beach County, Florida

evidence: Early on September 17, 1928, the Okeechobee hurricane made landfall near West Palm Beach as a category-4 storm and crossed Lake Okeechobee shortly thereafter.

evidence_id: Palm Beach County, Florida:66

article: Palm Beach County, Florida

evidence: August 28, 1949, a category-4 hurricane struck West Palm Beach with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph (240 km/h), causing considerable damage.

evidence_id: Palm Beach County, Florida:92

article: Palm Beach County, Florida

evidence: Jeanne struck near the same location as a category-3 hurricane on September 26, 2004.

evidence_id: Palm Beach County, Florida:96

article: Palm Beach County, Florida

evidence: On October 24, 2005, Hurricane Wilma struck Collier County as a category-3 hurricane.


text: While such a storm does not happen in New England anymore, it happened again there in 1675, with elderly eyewitnesses comparing it to the 1635 storm.

evidence_id: 1938 New England hurricane:0

article: 1938 New England hurricane

evidence: The 1938 New England Hurricane (also referred to as the Great New England Hurricane, Long Island Express, and Yankee Clipper) was one of the deadliest and most destructive tropical cyclones to strike Long Island, New York, and New England.

evidence_id: 1938 New England hurricane:4

article: 1938 New England hurricane

evidence: It remains the most powerful and deadliest hurricane in recorded New England history, perhaps eclipsed in landfall intensity only by the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635.

evidence_id: 1993 Storm of the Century:25

article: 1993 Storm of the Century

evidence: Readings of 976.0 millibars (28.82 inHg) were recorded in Tallahassee, Florida, and even lower readings of 960.0 millibars (28.35 inHg) were observed in New England.

evidence_id: Winter storm naming in the United States:7

evidence: Winter Storm naming in the United States goes back to the 1700s when a snowstorm dubbed "The Great Snow of 1717" hit the colonies of New England in 1717.

evidence_id: Winter storm:49

article: Winter storm

evidence: Notable ice storms include an El Niño-related North American ice storm of 1998 that affected much of eastern Canada, including Montreal and Ottawa, as well as upstate New York and part of New England.


text: Nine years into that 11-year hurricane drought, a NASA scientist computed it as a 1-in-177-year event.

evidence_id: Climate of Florida:70

article: Climate of Florida

evidence: A statewide drought began in November 2005, one month after Hurricane Wilma's passage through the state, and persisted until 2009.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:233

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In a NASA report published in January 2013, Hansen and Sato noted "the 5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing."

evidence_id: Hurricane Floyd:187

article: Hurricane Floyd

evidence: Following the state's fourth-worst drought in a century, the rains collected in rivers and streams, causing record flooding at 18 river gauges, and mostly affecting the Raritan, Passaic, and Delaware basins.

evidence_id: Natural disaster:73

article: Natural disaster

evidence: Drought is the unusual dryness of soil caused by levels of rainfall significantly below average over a prolonged period.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:46

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: Between 2011 and 2014, California experienced the driest period in its recorded history and more than 100 million trees died in the drought, creating areas of dead, dry wood.


text: The 30 most costly hurricanes in U.S. history (according to federal data from January) show no increase in intensity over time.

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:50

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge levels are likely to increase.

evidence_id: Hurricane Andrew:8

article: Hurricane Andrew

evidence: After spending a week without significantly strengthening itself in the central Atlantic, it rapidly intensified into a powerful Category 5 hurricane while moving westward towards the Bahamas on August 23.

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:1

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: It is tied with 2005's Hurricane Katrina as the costliest tropical cyclone on record, inflicting $125 billion (2017 USD) in damage, primarily from catastrophic rainfall-triggered flooding in the Houston metropolitan area and Southeast Texas.

evidence_id: Hurricane Irma:33

article: Hurricane Irma

evidence: The extremely powerful hurricane continued to intensify, with maximum sustained winds peaking at 180 mph (285 km/h) near 18:00 UTC on September 5.

evidence_id: Hurricane Irma:9

article: Hurricane Irma

evidence: On September 4, Irma resumed intensifying, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by early on the next day.


text: The monetary cost of damages has increased dramatically in recent decades, but that is due to increasing population, wealth and the amount of vulnerable infrastructure.

evidence_id: Economics of global warming:185

article: Economics of global warming

evidence: Losses caused by catastrophes, defined by the property insurance industry as storms causing insured losses over $5 million in the year of occurrence, have grown steadily in the United States from about $100 million annually in the 1950s to $6 billion per year in the 1990s, and the annual number of catastrophes grew from 10 in the 1950s to 35 in the 1990s.” Authors have pointed to several reasons why commercial insurance markets cannot adequately cover risks associated with climate change (Arrow et al., 1996, p. 72).

evidence_id: Economics of global warming:247

article: Economics of global warming

evidence: (2001) concluded that: countries with limited economic resources, low levels of technology, poor information and skills, poor infrastructure, unstable or weak institutions, and inequitable empowerment and access to resources have little adaptive capacity and are highly vulnerable to climate change (p. 879).

article: Neoliberalism

evidence: Others note that while the economy had stabilized and was growing by the late 1980s, inequality widened: nearly 45% of the population had fallen into poverty while the wealthiest 10% had seen their incomes rise by 83%.

article: Neoliberalism

evidence: Additionally, the percentage of the Chilean population living in poverty rose from 17% in 1969 to 45% in 1985 at the same time government budgets for education, health and housing dropped by over 20% on average.

evidence_id: United States:22

article: United States

evidence: Despite income and wealth disparities, the United States continues to rank very high in measures of socioeconomic performance, including average wage, median income, median wealth, human development, per capita GDP, and worker productivity.


text: But abnormal temperature spikes in February and earlier this month have left it vulnerable to winds, which have pushed the ice further away from the coast than at any time since satellite records began in the 1970s.”

article: Antarctica

evidence: A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may be influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 7 feet (2 m) above the surface as required for the official air temperature records.

article: Precipitation

evidence: Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe).

evidence_id: Santa Ana winds:20

article: Santa Ana winds

evidence: During Santa Ana conditions it is typically hotter along the coast than in the deserts, with the Southern California coastal region reaching some of its highest annual temperatures in autumn rather than summer.

evidence_id: Santa Ana winds:56

article: Santa Ana winds

evidence: Like the Santa Ana, these winds also heat up by compression and lose humidity, but because they start out so extraordinarily cold and dry and blow over snow and ice all the way to the sea, the perceived similarity is negligible.

evidence_id: West Coast of the United States:14

article: West Coast of the United States

evidence: The coastline sees significantly mild temperatures when compared to the inland areas during summer.


text: “During the sunless winter, a heatwave raised concerns that the polar vortex may be eroding.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: 2013–14 North American winter:28

article: 2013–14 North American winter

evidence: On December 1, 2013, the weakening of the polar vortex led to the beginning of an abnormally cold trend in the Eastern and Central United States.

evidence_id: Early 2014 North American cold wave:7

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Early 2014 North American cold wave

evidence: The polar vortex Beginning on January 2, 2014, sudden stratospheric warming (SSW)[dubious – discuss] led to the breakdown of the semi-permanent feature across the Arctic known as the polar vortex.

evidence_id: Polar vortex:100

article: Polar vortex

evidence: The general assumption is that reduced snow cover and sea ice reflect less sunlight and therefore evaporation and transpiration increases, which in turn alters the pressure and temperature gradient of the polar vortex, causing it to weaken or collapse.

article: Stratosphere

evidence: This breaking is caused due to a highly non-linear interaction between the vertically propagating planetary waves and the isolated high potential vorticity region known as the polar vortex.

evidence_id: Winter 1985 cold wave:0

article: Winter 1985 cold wave

evidence: The winter 1985 cold wave was a meteorological event, the result of the shifting of the polar vortex farther south than is normally seen.


text: More than 100 climate models over the past 30 years did not predict what actually happened because it was assumed carbon dioxide had the pivotal role in driving climate change and that the effects of clouds, back-radiation and the sun were trivial.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:191

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Climate models have been used to examine the role of the Sun in recent climate change.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:197

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: (2007) allowed for the possibility that climate models had been underestimated the effect of solar forcing.

evidence_id: Global warming:129

article: Global warming

evidence: Computer models are run on supercomputers to reproduce and predict the circulation of the oceans, the annual cycle of the seasons, and the flows of carbon between the land surface and the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:555

article: Global warming

evidence: "How the oceans absorb carbon dioxide is critical for predicting climate change".

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.


text: Climate projections also assume that planet Earth is not dynamic

evidence_id: Climate model:37

article: Climate model

evidence: This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.

article: Climate

evidence: These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

evidence_id: Coriolis force:187

article: Coriolis force

evidence: In meteorology and oceanography, it is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary.

article: Earth

evidence: The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time.

evidence_id: Future of Earth:80

article: Future of Earth

evidence: Despite such interactions, highly accurate simulations show that overall, Earth's orbit is likely to remain dynamically stable for billions of years into the future.


text: water vapour has been the main greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide has had a minuscule effect on global climate

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:21

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:6

article: Global warming

evidence: The largest human influence has been the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:54

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:2

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).


text: For the past 4567 million years, the sun and the Earth’s orbit have driven climate change cycles.

article: Earth

evidence: Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million km (93 million mi) every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year.

article: Earth

evidence: When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days.

evidence_id: Global warming:48

article: Global warming

evidence: increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

evidence_id: Ice age:182

article: Ice age

evidence: The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:162

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has, for the past 2,000 years, caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend that continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age.


text: Since then, the planet has been cooling on a millennial scale

article: Holocene

evidence: "Centennial-scale climate cooling with a sudden event around 8,200 years ago".

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:0

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:118

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: In the North Atlantic, sediments accumulated since the end of the last ice age, nearly 12,000 years ago, show regular increases in the amount of coarse sediment grains deposited from icebergs melting in the now open ocean, indicating a series of 1–2 °C (2–4 °F) cooling events recurring every 1,500 years or so.

article: Little Ice Age

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:163

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: The rate of Arctic cooling is roughly 0.02 °C per century.


text: Just 1.25 per cent of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere-ocean system has been released by humans in the past 250 years.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:185

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Human activities emit about 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year, while volcanoes emit between 0.2 and 0.3 billion tons.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:187

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:203

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of CO 2 emitted by human activity.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:211

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Most of the CO 2 taken up by the ocean, which is about 30% of the total released into the atmosphere, forms carbonic acid in equilibrium with bicarbonate.

evidence_id: Planetary boundaries:135

article: Planetary boundaries

evidence: About one quarter of the additional carbon dioxide generated by humans is dissolved in the oceans, where it forms carbonic acid.


text: Our evolving dynamic planet has survived sea level changes of hundreds of metres

article: Earth

evidence: Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m (6,600 ft).

article: Earth

evidence: This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.

article: Earth

evidence: More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at mean sea level.

evidence_id: Marine life:23

article: Marine life

evidence: Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean, having a depth of 10,900 metres (6.8 mi).

article: Tsunami

evidence: Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level.


text: Our evolving dynamic planet has survived[…] mass extinctions

article: Earth

evidence: In the history of life on Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinctions.

article: Earth

evidence: Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Mya, there have been five mass extinctions.

article: Evolution

evidence: The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years.

evidence_id: Future of Earth:26

article: Future of Earth

evidence: This has resulted in a widespread, ongoing mass extinction of other species during the present geological epoch, now known as the Holocene extinction.

article: Nature

evidence: The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals.


text: South Australia is winning: it has the most unreliable grid in the world outside Africa and the most expensive electricity.

article: Adelaide

evidence: [citation needed] South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.

article: Adelaide

evidence: "FactCheck: does South Australia have the 'highest energy prices' in the nation and 'the least reliable grid'?".

evidence_id: South Australia:93

article: South Australia

evidence: South Australia has the lead over other Australian states for its commercialisation and commitment to renewable energy.

evidence_id: South Australia:94

article: South Australia

evidence: It is now the leading producer of wind power in Australia.

evidence_id: South Australia:95

article: South Australia

evidence: Renewable energy is a growing source of electricity in South Australia, and there is potential for growth from this particular industry of the state's economy.


text: When South Australians buy electricity at $14,200/MWh, they are paying the equivalent of $400 a litre for petrol.

evidence_id: Energy policy of India:150

article: Energy policy of India

evidence: The retail price of petrol is 75.00 Rs/litre in 2012-13.

evidence_id: Energy policy of India:151

article: Energy policy of India

evidence: The affordable electricity retail price (860 kcal/kWh at 75% input electricity to shaft power efficiency) to replace petrol (lower heating value 7693 kcal/litre at 33% fuel energy to crank shaft efficiency) is 19.06 Rs/kWh.

evidence_id: Kilowatt hour:0

article: Kilowatt hour

evidence: The kilowatt-hour (kWh, also kW⋅h or kW h) is a unit of energy equal to 3600 kilojoules (3.6 megajoules).

evidence_id: National Electricity Market:36

article: National Electricity Market

evidence_id: Solar power:11

article: Solar power

evidence: As of 2018, the unsubsidised levelised cost of electricity for utility scale solar power is around $43/MWh.


text: Never mind that the emissions of carbon dioxide to make and maintain a wind or solar industrial complex are far greater than they will ever save.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:21

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

evidence_id: Carbon footprint:73

article: Carbon footprint

evidence: Some potential options to increase energy efficiency include, but are not limited to: Waste heat recovery systems Insulation for large buildings and combustion chambers Technology upgrades, ie different light sources, lower consumption machines Carbon Footprints from energy consumption can be reduced through the development of alternative energy projects, such as solar and wind energy, which are renewable resources.

article: Coal

evidence: The largest and most long term effect of coal use is the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that causes climate change and global warming.

article: Engine

evidence: Also, resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary concern regarding global warming.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel power station:86

article: Fossil fuel power station

evidence: Electricity generation using carbon-based fuels is responsible for a large fraction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions worldwide and for 34% of U.S. man-made carbon dioxide emissions in 2010.


text: Domino-effect of climate events could move Earth into a ‘hothouse’ state

evidence_id: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference):28

evidence_id: Global warming:126

article: Global warming

evidence: A concern is that self-reinforcing feedbacks will lead to a tipping point, where global temperatures transition to a hothouse climate state even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced or eliminated.

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:529

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: Climate Action Tracker "Domino-effect of climate events could push Earth into a 'hothouse' state".

evidence_id: Runaway greenhouse effect:284

article: Runaway greenhouse effect

evidence: "Domino-effect of climate events could move Earth into a 'hothouse' state".

evidence_id: Tipping points in the climate system:6

article: Tipping points in the climate system

evidence: Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.


text: Previous studies have shown that weakening carbon sinks will add 0.25°C, forest dieback will add 0.11°C, permafrost thaw will add 0.9°C and increased bacterial respiration will add 0.02°C.

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:88

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: The Woods Hole Research Center, citing two 2015 studies on permafrost carbon says there may be a self-reinforcing tipping point where an estimated equivalent of 205 gigatons of carbon dioxide in the form of methane could cause up to 0.5 °C (up to 0.9 °F) warming by the end of the century, which would trigger more warming.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:61

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Farquharson and her team guess that about 231,000 square miles (600,000 square kilometers) of permafrost, or about 5.5% of the zone that is permafrost year-round, is vulnerable to rapid surface thawing.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:7

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: According to a study published in 2016, about 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980.

article: Permafrost

evidence: "1.5C rise in temperature enough to start permafrost melt, scientists warn".

article: Permafrost

evidence: A global temperature rise of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia, according to one group of scientists.


text: We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2C warmer than the preindustrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will ‘want’ to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions,” she said.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:127

article: Global warming

evidence: A 2018 study tried to identify such a planetary threshold for self-reinforcing feedbacks and found that even a 2 °C (3.6 °F) increase in temperature over pre-industrial levels may be enough to trigger such a hothouse Earth scenario.

evidence_id: Global warming:21

article: Global warming

evidence: Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

evidence_id: Planetary boundaries:16

article: Planetary boundaries

evidence: The scientists raise the possibility that even if greenhouse gas emissions are substantially reduced to limit warming to 2 degrees, that might be the "threshold" at which self-reinforcing climate feedbacks add additional warming until the climate system stabilizes in a hothouse climate state.

evidence_id: Planetary boundaries:19

article: Planetary boundaries

evidence: Study author Katherine Richardson stresses, "We note that the Earth has never in its history had a quasi-stable state that is around 2 °C warmer than the preindustrial and suggest that there is substantial risk that the system, itself, will ‘want’ to continue warming because of all of these other processes – even if we stop emissions.


text: The heatwave we now have in Europe is not something that was expected with just 1C of warming

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:113

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: Ruse, Bulgaria hit 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on the 13th making it the warmest spot in Europe.

evidence_id: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves:139

article: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves

evidence: A heat wave started in Moscow on the 27 June, as temperatures reached 33.1 °C (91.6 °F), and stayed around 30 °C (90 °F) for the rest of the week.

evidence_id: 2018 British Isles heat wave:95

article: 2018 British Isles heat wave

evidence: 2018's temperature was 16.1 °C (61.0 °F), meaning it ranks as the 18th warmest June recorded in England in the past 359 years, also being the warmest since 1976.

evidence_id: Heat wave:150

article: Heat wave

evidence: June 2019 was the hottest month on record worldwide, the effects of this were especially prominent in Europe.

evidence_id: Heat wave:151

article: Heat wave

evidence: The effects of climate change have been projected to make heat waves in places such as Europe up to five times more likely to occur.


text: The jet stream controls broad weather patterns, such as high-pressure and low-pressure systems.

article: Cyclone

evidence: A polar cyclone is a low-pressure weather system, usually spanning 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) to 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi), in which the air circulates in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, and a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

article: Cyclone

evidence: A polar low is a small-scale, short-lived atmospheric low-pressure system (depression) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

evidence_id: Extratropical cyclone:0

article: Extratropical cyclone

evidence: Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, are low-pressure areas which, along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas, drive the weather over much of the Earth.

evidence_id: Extratropical cyclone:2

article: Extratropical cyclone

evidence: These types of cyclones are defined as large scale (synoptic) low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth.

evidence_id: Jet stream:69

article: Jet stream

evidence: This causes surface low pressure and higher pressure at altitude.


text: The extent of climate change’s influence on the jet stream is an intense subject of research.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:83

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: Based on effects of Arctic amplification (warming) and ice loss, a study in 2015 concluded that highly amplified jet-stream patterns are occurring more frequently in the past two decades, and that such patterns can not be tied to certain seasons.

article: Cloud

evidence: As a consequence, much research has focused on the response of low and vertical clouds to a changing climate.

evidence_id: Hurricane Harvey:296

article: Hurricane Harvey

evidence: The relationship between climate change and the frequency of hurricanes (or tropical cyclones) is still unclear, and is the subject of continuing research.

evidence_id: Jet stream:315

article: Jet stream

evidence: Climatological Studies of the Influences of El Niño Southern Oscillation Events in the Precipitation Pattern Over South America During Austral Summer.

evidence_id: Jet stream:78

article: Jet stream

evidence: The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology.


text: Last year, scientists published evidence that the conditions leading up to “stuck jet streams” are becoming more common, with warming in the Arctic seen as a likely culprit.

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:166

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns.

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:76

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: One of the study researchers noted, "The expectation is that with further sea ice decline, temperatures in the Arctic will continue to rise, and so will methane emissions from northern wetlands."

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence_id: Global warming:158

article: Global warming

evidence: Various mechanisms have been identified that might explain extreme weather in mid-latitudes from the rapidly warming Arctic, such as the jet stream becoming more erratic.

evidence_id: Jet stream:124

article: Jet stream

evidence: Trends such as Arctic sea ice decline, reduced snow cover, evapotranspiration patterns, and other weather anomalies have caused the Arctic to heat up faster than other parts of the globe (polar amplification).


text: Gone are the days when scientists drew a bright line dividing weather and climate.

evidence_id: Alpine climate:0

article: Alpine climate

evidence: Alpine climate is the typical weather (climate) for the regions above the tree line.

article: Climate

evidence: If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w. While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973.

evidence_id: Köppen climate classification:117

article: Köppen climate classification

evidence: These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather.

evidence_id: Oceanic climate:78

article: Oceanic climate

evidence: With the air coming from the ocean predominates the cloudy weather with constant precipitation even in the colder months and the temperature is strongly enlivened.

article: Weather

evidence: Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly in historical events.


text: The heaviest precipitation events will become more frequent and more extreme.

evidence_id: Climate of India:260

article: Climate of India

evidence: Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures.

article: Rain

evidence: "Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation".

article: Supercell

evidence: This is generally the area of heaviest and most widespread precipitation.

evidence_id: Tropical cyclone:40

article: Tropical cyclone

evidence: The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest.

article: Uruguay

evidence: The heaviest precipitation occurs during the autumn months, although more frequent rainy spells occur in winter.


text: In Alaska, brown bears are changing their feeding habits to eat elderberries that ripen earlier.

claim_label: DISPUTED

evidence_id: Brown bear:215

article: Brown bear

evidence: They often feed on a variety of plant life, including berries, grasses, flowers, acorns and pine cones, as well as fungi such as mushrooms.

evidence_id: Brown bear:219

article: Brown bear

evidence: Fruits, including berries, become increasingly important during summer and early autumn.

evidence_id: Brown bear:228

article: Brown bear

evidence: In the Kamchatka peninsula and several parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon, whose nutrition and abundance explain the enormous size of the bears in these areas.

evidence_id: Grizzly bear:111

article: Grizzly bear

evidence: Grizzlies in Alaska supplement their diet of salmon and clams with sedge grass and berries.

evidence_id: Kodiak bear:88

article: Kodiak bear

evidence: As climate change causes elderberries to ripen earlier, berry season is now overlapping with salmon season and some bears are abandoning salmon runs to focus on the berries.


text: The April low temperatures here are now about 6 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than they used to be.

evidence_id: Climate of Chicago:38

article: Climate of Chicago

evidence: At O'Hare, temperatures as low as 7 °F (−14 °C) and 31 °F (−1 °C) have been recorded as late as April 7 and May 21, respectively.

article: Florida

evidence: With an average daily temperature of 70.7 °F (21.5 °C), it is the warmest state in the U.S.

evidence_id: Montclair, New Jersey:30

article: Montclair, New Jersey

evidence: From April to June and from September to early November, Montclair experiences temperatures from the lower 60s to the lower 70s.

evidence_id: New Jersey:158

article: New Jersey

evidence: Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.

evidence_id: Pago Pago:240

article: Pago Pago

evidence: A temperature range of about three degrees Fahrenheit separates the average monthly temperatures of the coolest and hottest months.


text: Species that have a lot of plasticity tend to be generalists.

evidence_id: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals:90

evidence: The American coyote is an example of a generalist.

evidence_id: Invasive species:20

article: Invasive species

evidence: Common invasive species traits include the following: Fast growth Rapid reproduction High dispersal ability Phenotype plasticity (the ability to alter growth form to suit current conditions) Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Ecological competence) Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist) Association with humans Prior successful invasions Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location.

evidence_id: Invasive species:68

article: Invasive species

evidence: Intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, pre-adaptation and post-introduction evolution are all major factors in adaptive evolution.

article: Species

evidence: phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).

article: Vine

evidence: Vines are unique in that they have multiple evolutionary origins and a wide range of phenotypic plasticity.


text: And there is a lot of evidence that climate change is diminishing biodiversity, which can be seen in these alpine meadows as well.

article: Biodiversity

evidence: Climate change has proven to affect biodiversity and evidence supporting the altering effects is widespread.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:501

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: "Dominance hierarchies, diversity and species richness of vascular plants in an alpine meadow: contrasting short and medium term responses to simulated global change".

evidence_id: Deforestation and climate change:80

article: Deforestation and climate change

evidence: As development of the country's caused a decline in forest cover, a reduction in biodiversity was seen in those areas.

evidence_id: Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity:70

evidence: Increased temperatures may allow herbivores to expand further into alpine regions, significant impacting the composition of alpine herbfields.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:677

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The statement goes on to assert that "evidence is accumulating that wildlife and wildlife habitats have been and will continue to be significantly affected by ongoing large-scale rapid climate change."


text: current climate predictions may underestimate long-term warming by as much as a factor of two

evidence_id: Global warming:1783

article: Global warming

evidence: "A novel probabilistic forecast system predicting anomalously warm 2018–2022 reinforcing the long-term global warming trend".

evidence_id: Global warming:7

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:128

evidence: Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least the last 10,000 years.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:10

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A conservative estimate of the long-term projections is that each Celsius degree of temperature rise triggers a sea level rise of approximately 2.3 meters (4.2 ft/degree Fahrenheit) over a period of two millennia: an example of climate inertia.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:564

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Long-term persistence enhances uncertainty about anthropogenic warming of Antarctica".


text: This could mean the landmark Paris Climate Agreement – which seeks to limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels – may not be enough to ward off catastrophe.

evidence_id: Global warming:18

article: Global warming

evidence: Although the parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) in the Paris Agreement of 2016, the Earth's average surface temperature has already increased by about half this threshold and current pledges by countries to cut emissions are inadequate to limit future warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:262

article: Global warming

evidence: Parties associated with the Accord aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 °C.

evidence_id: Global warming:263

article: Global warming

evidence: In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep climate change well below 2 °C.

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:160

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: A 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees compared to the pre-industrial levels, through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting this threshold is below the 2-degree temperature target, agreed upon by the Paris climate deal.

evidence_id: Paris Agreement:3

article: Paris Agreement

evidence: The Paris Agreement's long-term temperature goal is to keep the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; and to pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 °C, recognizing that this would substantially reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.


text: In looking at Earth’s past, scientists can predict what the future will look like

evidence_id: Big data:287

article: Big data

evidence: Fed by a large number of data on past experiences, algorithms can predict future development if the future is similar to the past.

evidence_id: Global catastrophic risk:231

article: Global catastrophic risk

evidence: Scientists do not predict that a natural ice age will occur anytime soon.

evidence_id: Global catastrophic risk:36

article: Global catastrophic risk

evidence: Historically, the ability of experts to predict the future over these timescales has proved very limited.

article: Physics

evidence: For example, in the study of the origin of the earth, one can reasonably model earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events.

evidence_id: Scientific method:119

article: Scientific method

evidence: Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that scientists can use to predict the results of future experiments.


text: But as the change gets larger or more persistent … it appears they underestimate climate change

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:225

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: indicates that current greenhouse gas reduction policies in the US are based on what appear to be significant underestimates of anthropogenic methane emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming:131

article: Global warming

evidence: Models not only project different future temperature with different emissions of greenhouse gases, but also do not fully agree on the strength of different feedbacks on climate sensitivity and the amount of inertia of the system.

evidence_id: Global warming:142

article: Global warming

evidence: Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but now agrees well with observations.

evidence_id: Global warming:167

article: Global warming

evidence: Abrupt climate change, tipping points in the climate system: Climate change could result in global, large-scale changes.

evidence_id: Global warming:555

article: Global warming

evidence: "How the oceans absorb carbon dioxide is critical for predicting climate change".


text: The research also revealed how large areas of the polar ice caps could collapse and significant changes to ecosystems could see the Sahara Desert become green and the edges of tropical forests turn into fire-dominated savanna.

evidence_id: Regime shift:56

article: Regime shift

evidence: Bush encroachment refers to small changes in herbivory rates that can shift drylands from grassy dominated regimes towards woody dominated savannas.

evidence_id: Regime shift:88

article: Regime shift

evidence: Dryland degradation occurs when the loss of vegetation transforms an ecosystem from being vegetated to being dominated by bare soils.

evidence_id: Regime shift:93

article: Regime shift

evidence: Regime shifts in polar regions include the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and the possible collapse of the thermohaline circulation system.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:423

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: The potential for major sea level rise depends mostly on a significant melting of the polar ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, as this is where the vast majority of glacial ice is located.

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:424

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: If all the ice on the polar ice caps were to melt away, the oceans of the world would rise an estimated 70 m (230 ft).


text: While an isolated heatwave can be put down as an anomaly, the scale of this phenomenon points to global warming as the culprit, scientists said.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming on human health:21

evidence: Another impact that the warming global temperature has had is on the frequency and severity of heat waves.

evidence_id: Global warming conspiracy theory:13

article: Global warming conspiracy theory

evidence: The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged at the end of the investigations.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:49

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: Records of global average surface temperature are usually presented as anomalies rather than as absolute temperatures.

evidence_id: Shutdown of thermohaline circulation:37

article: Shutdown of thermohaline circulation

evidence: In response Quirin Schiermeier concluded that natural variation was the culprit for the observations but highlighted possible implications.


text: ‘Summers keep getting hotter,’ said Friederike Otto of the University of Oxford, who conducted extensive research into data from the heatwave that spread Europe in June, July and August 2017.

article: London

evidence: Most recently in Summer 2018 and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.

article: Oxford

evidence: The highest temperature ever recorded in Oxford is 37.2 °C (99 °F) in July 2019 during the 2019 European heat wave.

article: Sweden

evidence: That, in turn, renders most of Sweden's southern areas having warmer summers than almost everywhere in the nearby British Isles, even matching temperatures found along the continental Atlantic coast as far south as in northern Spain.

evidence_id: University of Oxford:496

article: University of Oxford

evidence: H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe, iii, 55–60.

evidence_id: University of Oxford:664

article: University of Oxford

evidence: Students taking maths and computer science examinations in the summer of 2017 were given an extra 15 minutes to complete their papers, after dons ruled that "female candidates might be more likely to be adversely affected by time pressure" "Archived copy".


text: ‘Heatwaves are far more intense than when my parents were growing up in the 1950s.

evidence_id: Heat wave:0

article: Heat wave

evidence: A heat wave, or heatwave, is a period of excessively hot weather, which may be accompanied by high humidity, especially in oceanic climate countries.

evidence_id: Heat wave:13

article: Heat wave

evidence: The World Meteorological Organization, defines a heat wave as 5 or more consecutive days of prolonged heat in which the daily maximum temperature is higher than the average maximum temperature by 5 °C (9 °F) or more.

evidence_id: Heat wave:144

article: Heat wave

evidence: Increased anthropogenic activities causing increased greenhouse gas emissions show that heat waves will be more severe.

evidence_id: Heat wave:160

article: Heat wave

evidence: "More Intense, More Frequent, and Longer Lasting Heat Waves in the 21st Century".

evidence_id: Heat wave:8

article: Heat wave

evidence: 's Heat Wave Duration Index is that a heat wave occurs when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature by 5 °C (9 °F), the normal period being 1961–1990.


text: ‘If we do nothing to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, the kind of extreme heat we saw this past summer will be the norm when my young son is a grown man.’

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:4

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: CO 2 absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 µm (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode) and consequently is a greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:63

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:231

article: Global warming

evidence: For example, bicycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions while reducing the effects of a sedentary lifestyle at the same time.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:190

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Avoiding this future warming will require a large and rapid reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions.

evidence_id: Years of Living Dangerously:47

article: Years of Living Dangerously

evidence: He learns that "Earth could warm by more than 9 degrees F (5 degrees C) by 2100 if we don’t aggressively reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases", and that more frequent heat waves and droughts will contribute to food shortages, which can lead to greater conflicts in the Middle East and elsewhere.


text: the kind of extreme heat we saw this past summer will be the norm

evidence_id: Climate change in Australia:122

article: Climate change in Australia

evidence: August 2018 was hotter and windier than the average.

evidence_id: Climate change in Australia:135

article: Climate change in Australia

evidence: Summer 2013–14 was warmer than average for the entirety of Australia.

article: Perth

evidence: Summers are generally hot and dry, lasting from December to March, with February generally the hottest month.

article: Sydney

evidence: Under the Köppen–Geiger classification, Sydney has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with warm summers, cool winters and uniform rainfall throughout the year.

article: Sydney

evidence: The summer of 2007–08, however, proved to be the coolest since 1996–97 and is the only summer this century to be at or below average in temperatures.


text: On the other side of the Atlantic ocean, climates are typically milder as a result of the cooling from the Gulf Stream.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:127

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas.

evidence_id: Atlantic Ocean:128

article: Atlantic Ocean

evidence: The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:4

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: Although there has been recent debate, there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic Current which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:53

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland, helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeast during the winter.

article: Norway

evidence: The coastal climate of Norway is exceptionally mild compared with areas on similar latitudes elsewhere in the world, with the Gulf Stream passing directly offshore the northern areas of the Atlantic coast, continuously warming the region in the winter.


text: But despite [the Gulf Stream], the summer of 2018 looks set to be one of the hottest on record.

article: Bahrain

evidence: Summer temperatures may reach up to 50 °C (122 °F) under the right conditions.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:0

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean as the North Atlantic Current.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:22

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: By carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic, it makes Western and especially Northern Europe warmer than it otherwise would be.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:42

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: As it travels north, the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling.

evidence_id: Gulf Stream:45

article: Gulf Stream

evidence: These two processes produce water that is denser and colder (or, more precisely, water that is still liquid at a lower temperature).


text: The sun was so intense, it took the mercury up to in excess of 120°F as it topped out at 122.4 °F (50.2°C).

evidence_id: Mercury (planet):106

article: Mercury (planet)

evidence: The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F) at the most extreme places: 0°N, 0°W, or 180°W.

evidence_id: Mercury (planet):109

article: Mercury (planet)

evidence: On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m−2).

evidence_id: Mercury (planet):14

article: Mercury (planet)

evidence: Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other planet in the Solar System, ranging from 100 K (−173 °C; −280 °F) at night to 700 K (427 °C; 800 °F) during the day across the equatorial regions.

evidence_id: Mercury (planet):15

article: Mercury (planet)

evidence: The polar regions are constantly below 180 K (−93 °C; −136 °F).

article: Sun

evidence: The Sun is a G2V star, with G2 indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 °C, 9,941 °F), and V that it, like most stars, is a main-sequence star.


text: Their ECS estimate is 1.5 degrees, with a probability range between 1.05 and 2.45 degrees.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:21

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: As estimated by the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), "there is high confidence that ECS is extremely unlikely less than 1°C and medium confidence that the ECS is likely between 1.5°C and 4.5°C and very unlikely greater than 6°C".

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:27

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The IPCC literature assessment estimates that TCR likely lies between 1 °C and 2.5 °C.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:72

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: IPCC authors concluded ECS is very likely to be greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and likely to lie in the range 2 to 4.5 °C (4 to 8.1 °F), with a most likely value of about 3 °C (5 °F).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:74

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report reverted to the earlier range of 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F) (high confidence) because some estimates using industrial-age data came out low.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:75

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: They also stated that ECS is extremely unlikely to be less than 1 °C (1.8 °F) (high confidence), and is very unlikely to be greater than 6 °C (11 °F) (medium confidence).


text: But it is part of a long list of studies from independent teams (as this interactive graphic shows), using a variety of methods that take account of critical challenges, all of which conclude that climate models exhibit too much sensitivity to greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Climate change adaptation:995

article: Climate change adaptation

evidence: African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050 (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:231

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A 2007 study by David Douglass and coworkers, concluded that the 22 most commonly used global climate models used by the IPCC were unable to accurately predict accelerated warming in the troposphere although they did match actual surface warming, concluding "projections of future climate based on these models should be viewed with much caution".

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:241

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Over several decades of development, models have consistently provided a robust and unambiguous picture of significant climate warming in response to increasing greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:32

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Synthesis reports are assessments of scientific literature that compile the results of a range of stand-alone studies in order to achieve a broad level of understanding, or to describe the state of knowledge of a given subject.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:65

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I (October 2017) provided the following summary: This assessment concludes, based on extensive evidence, that it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.


text: It shows that ECS is probably between two and 4.5 degrees, possibly as low as 1.5 but not lower, and possibly as high as nine degrees.

evidence_id: Bachelor's degree:406

article: Bachelor's degree

evidence: Ordinary degrees are at level 9 and require 360 credits with a minimum of 90 at level 9.

evidence_id: Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry):28

evidence: a diatomic molecule) in a 3-D space with constant distance between them (let's say d) we can show (below) its degrees of freedom to be 5.

article: Equator

evidence: The latitude of the Earth's equator is, by definition, 0° (zero degrees) of arc.

evidence_id: Master's degree:124

article: Master's degree

evidence: Taught master's degrees are normally one to two year courses, rated at 60 - 120 ECTS credits, while research master's degrees are normally two year courses, either rated at 120 ECTS credits or not credit rated.

evidence_id: Six degrees of separation:129

article: Six degrees of separation

evidence: The average separation for all users of the application is 5.73 degrees, whereas the maximum degree of separation is 12.


text: If ECS is as low as the Energy Balance literature suggests, it means that the climate models we have been using for decades run too hot and need to be revised.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:234

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Ed Hawkins, of the University of Reading, stated that the "surface temperatures since 2005 are already at the low end of the range of projections derived from 20 climate models.

article: Global warming controversy

evidence_id: Global warming:317

article: Global warming

evidence: In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, showing that halving of CO 2 could have produced the drop in temperature initiating the ice age.

evidence_id: Global warming:7

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.


text: Whether Antarctic mass loss keeps worsening depends on choices made today

article: Antarctica

evidence: "Mass gains of the Antarctic ice sheet exceed losses".

evidence_id: Ice sheet:26

article: Ice sheet

evidence: The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:18

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Sometimes these adaptation strategies go hand in hand, but at other times choices have to be made among different strategies.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:88

article: Sea level rise

evidence: All datasets generally show an acceleration of mass loss from the Antarctic ice-sheet, but with year-to-year variations.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:92

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A 2019 study, however, using different methodology, concluded that East Antarctica is losing significant amounts of ice mass.


text: That’s because as Antarctica’s mass shrinks, the ice sheet’s gravitational pull on the ocean relaxes somewhat, and the seas travel back across the globe to pile up far away — with U.S. coasts being one prime destination.”

article: Antarctica

evidence: Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water).

article: Antarctica

evidence: However, it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level.

evidence_id: Post-glacial rebound:54

article: Post-glacial rebound

evidence: During deglaciation, the melted ice water returns to the oceans, thus sea level in the ocean increases again.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:196

article: Sea level rise

evidence: With the loss of mass, the gravitational pull becomes less and local water levels might drop.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:80

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The additional snowfall causes increased ice flow of the ice sheet into the ocean, so that the mass gain due to snowfall is partially compensated.


text: The Rio Grande is a classic “feast or famine” river, with a dry year or two typically followed by a couple of wet years that allow for recovery.

evidence_id: Köppen climate classification:113

article: Köppen climate classification

evidence: s indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer.

evidence_id: Köppen climate classification:143

article: Köppen climate classification

evidence: Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy.

evidence_id: Rio Grande:68

article: Rio Grande

evidence: Because of both drought and overuse, the section from El Paso downstream through Ojinaga was recently tagged "The Forgotten River" by those wishing to bring attention to the river's deteriorated condition.

evidence_id: Temperate climate:21

article: Temperate climate

evidence: In these regions winters are quite dry and summers have very heavy rainfall.

evidence_id: Temperate climate:23

article: Temperate climate

evidence: Mediterranean Climates, opposite to the humid subtropical and monsoonal climates, have a dry summer, with rainfall in the winter and cooler months.


text: If warming temperatures brought on by greenhouse gas emissions make wet years less wet and dry years even drier, as scientists anticipate, year-to-year recovery will become more difficult.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:101

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Prolonged periods of warmer temperatures typically cause soil and underbrush to be drier for longer periods, increasing the risk of wildfires.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:70

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: In other words, regions which are dry at present will in general become even drier, while regions that are currently wet will in general become even wetter.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:83

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: If GHG emissions grow a lot (IPCC scenario RCP8.5), already dry regions may have more droughts and less soil moisture.

evidence_id: Global warming:12

article: Global warming

evidence: Overall, higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfires increase instead.

evidence_id: Physical impacts of climate change:23

article: Physical impacts of climate change

evidence: In other words, regions which are dry at present will generally become even drier, while regions that are currently wet will generally become even wetter.


text: The effect of long-term warming is to make it harder to count on snowmelt runoff in wet times

article: Cryosphere

evidence: Climate warming is expected to result in major changes to the partitioning of snow and rainfall, and to the timing of snowmelt, which will have important implications for water use and management.

evidence_id: Global warming:29

article: Global warming

evidence: Further examples include sea level rise, widespread melting of snow and land ice, increased heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, and the earlier timing of spring events, such as the flowering of plants.

evidence_id: Lake Tahoe:60

article: Lake Tahoe

evidence: There is a pronounced annual runoff of snowmelt in late spring and early summer, the timing of which varies from year to year.

evidence_id: Season creep:17

article: Season creep

evidence: Modeling of snowmelt predicted that warming of 3 to 5 °C in the Western United States could cause snowmelt-driven runoff to occur as much as two months earlier, with profound effects on hydroelectricity, land use, agriculture, and water management.

article: Snow

evidence: Some agricultural areas depend on an accumulation of snow during winter that will melt gradually in spring, providing water for crop growth, both directly and via runoff through streams and rivers, which supply irrigation canals.


text: Last year, though, was a wet one on the Rio Grande, with a strong snowpack in the winter of 2016-17 that allowed the conservancy district to store water in upstream reservoirs.

evidence_id: Colorado River:409

article: Colorado River

evidence: In November 2012, the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement, known as Minute 319, permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years, thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used.

evidence_id: Glen Canyon Dam:268

article: Glen Canyon Dam

evidence: Since then, the reservoir has slowly regained water storage, but has not filled due to fluctuating runoff levels and its obligated release to Lake Mead.

evidence_id: Glen Canyon Dam:270

article: Glen Canyon Dam

evidence: At the end of water year 2017 (September 30), the lake level was 3,628 feet (1,106 m), and at 60 percent of capacity.

evidence_id: Glen Canyon Dam:36

article: Glen Canyon Dam

evidence: With the Glen Canyon site out of the question, the initial need for a reservoir was realized in 1936 with the completion of Hoover Dam in Black Canyon, storing 32 million acre feet (39 km3) in the mammoth reservoir of Lake Mead.

evidence_id: Glen Canyon Dam:40

article: Glen Canyon Dam

evidence: Without storage reservoirs of their own, the Upper Basin states risked a "call" on the Colorado River during drought years: they would be forced to use less water in order to keep the river flowing to Lake Mead and California, the state with the most senior water rights.


text: Temperatures in the Southwest increased by nearly two degrees Fahrenheit (one degree Celsius) from 1901 to 2010, and some climate models forecast a total rise of six degrees or more by the end of this century.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:198

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: In it was the prediction that on our current course the planet will warm a disastrous seven degrees Fahrenheit (or about 3.9 degrees Celsius) by the end of this century.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:237

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: For example, based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre's climate model (HadCM2), a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols, by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 °F (2.8 °C) (with a range of 2-9 °F) in winter and summer and 4 °F (2.2 °C) (with a range of 2-7 °F) in spring and fall.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:285

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: "A projected increase of 4.05 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature is expected by 2065, and a projected increase of 9.37 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature can be expected by the turn of the century if nothing is done to curb emissions.

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:286

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: The average annual temperature in South Dakota has increased by about 2 degrees Fahrenheit since the beginning of the 20th century, and most of that warming has occurred in winter and spring.

article: Permian

evidence: Based on the amount of lava estimated to have been produced during this period, the worst-case scenario is the release of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius.


text: Dr. Gutzler said spring temperatures have an impact, too, with warmer air causing more snow to turn to vapor and essentially disappear.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:96

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Warmer air holds more water vapor.

article: Global warming

article: Precipitation

evidence: Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers.

article: Snow

evidence: Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier, warmer air on the descending, leeward side.

article: Thunderstorm

evidence: As the water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air.


text: A longer and warmer growing season also has an effect, Dr. Overpeck said, as plants take up more water, further reducing stream flows.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:201

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: Increased temperatures and altered hydrological cycles are predicted to translate to shorter growing seasons, overall reduced biomass production, and lower grain yields.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:329

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:41

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: While warmer temperatures create longer growing seasons, and faster growth rates for plants, it also increases the metabolic rate and number of breeding cycles of insect populations.

evidence_id: List of ecoregions in North America (CEC):1175

evidence: As climate change more rapidly progresses, temperature increases will affect the length of the growing season.

evidence_id: Season creep:8

article: Season creep

evidence: While summer growing seasons are expanding, winters are getting warmer and shorter, resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water, earlier ice-out, earlier melt water flows, and earlier spring lake level peaks.


text: The noted oceanographer Walter Munk referred to sea-level rise as an “enigma”

evidence_id: Sea level rise:358

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Scientists discover evidence for past high-level sea rise".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:405

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:415

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Multidecadal sea level anomalies and trends in the western tropical Pacific".

article: Seamount

evidence: They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1,000 m (3,281 ft) above the seafloor, characteristically of conical form.

evidence_id: Walter Munk:148

article: Walter Munk

evidence: This work described what came to be known as "Munk's enigma", a large discrepancy between observed rate of sea level rise and its expected effects on the earth's rotation.


text: I note particularly that sea-level rise is not affected by the warming; it continues at the same rate, 1.8 millimeters a year, according to a 1990 review by Andrew S. Trupin and John Wahr.

evidence_id: Global warming:146

article: Global warming

evidence: Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:171

article: Sea level rise

evidence: For instance, Mercer published a study in 1978 predicting that anthropogenic carbon dioxide warming and its potential effects on climate in the 21st century could cause a sea level rise of around 5 metres (16 ft) from melting of the West Antarctic ice-sheet alone.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:22

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The last time the Earth was 2 °C (3.6 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures, sea levels were at least 5 metres (16 ft) higher than now: this was when warming because of changes in the amount of sunlight due to slow changes in the Earth's orbit caused the last interglacial.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:50

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Data collected by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia show the current global mean sea level trend to be 3.2 mm (0.13 in) per year, a doubling of the rate during the 20th century.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:87

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The sea-level rise due to Antarctica has been estimated to be 0.25 mm per year from 1993–2005, and 0.42 mm per year from 2005 to 2015.


text: The trend has been measured by a network of tidal gauges, many of which have been collecting data for over a century.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:2

article: Sea level rise

evidence: More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveal an accelerating rise of 7.5 cm (3.0 in) from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly 30 cm (12 in) per century.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:381

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "One of the most striking trends – over a century of global-average sea level change".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:39

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Earlier satellite measurements were previously slightly at odds with tide gauge measurements.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:44

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Another important source of sea-level observations is the global network of tide gauges.

article: Sea level rise


text: as continents rise after the overlying ice has melted

evidence_id: Geology of Scotland:52

article: Geology of Scotland

evidence: Sea levels rose as the Ordovician ice sheets melted, and tectonic movements created major faults which assembled the outline of Scotland from previously scattered fragments.

evidence_id: Karoo Supergroup:28

article: Karoo Supergroup

evidence: As Gondwana drifted away from the South Pole, the glaciers melted, leaving a vast inland sea, extending across South Africa, and neighboring regions of Gondwana.

article: Overdeepening

evidence: Water flowing down the headwall gains energy, which melts the surrounding ice, creating channels.

article: Overdeepening

evidence: As the water passes through the bottom, it continues to drop in temperature; since it is highly pressurized at this point, the melting temperature is suppressed and the water becomes supercooled as it melts surrounding ice.

evidence_id: Plate tectonics:56

article: Plate tectonics

evidence: The addition of water lowers the melting point of the mantle material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt.


text: I conclude that it must be ice accumulation, through evaporation of ocean water, and subsequent precipitation turning into ice.

article: Flood

evidence: Some precipitation evaporates, some slowly percolates through soil, some may be temporarily sequestered as snow or ice, and some may produce rapid runoff from surfaces including rock, pavement, roofs, and saturated or frozen ground.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:59

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Each year about 8 mm (0.31 in) of precipitation (liquid equivalent) falls on the ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland, mostly as snow, which accumulates and over time forms glacial ice.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:60

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Much of this precipitation began as water vapor evaporated from the ocean surface.

article: Snow

evidence: It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide or sublimate away.

article: Water

evidence: precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to the earth or ocean.


text: Currently, sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2.

evidence_id: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum:98

article: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

evidence: This depth depends on (among other things) temperature and the amount of CO 2 dissolved in the ocean.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:3

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:68

article: Sea level rise

evidence: The heat needed to raise an average temperature increase of the entire world ocean by 0.01 °C would increase the atmospheric temperature by approximately 10 °C.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:69

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Thus, a small change in the mean temperature of the ocean represents a very large change in the total heat content of the climate system.

evidence_id: Sea level:56

article: Sea level

evidence: Atmospheric pressure, ocean currents and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well.


text: But there is also good data showing sea levels

article: Coral

evidence: By analyzing the various growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low resolution record of sea level change.

evidence_id: Global warming:142

article: Global warming

evidence: Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but now agrees well with observations.

evidence_id: Global warming:146

article: Global warming

evidence: Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

evidence_id: Global warming:92

article: Global warming

evidence: Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea level rise.

evidence_id: Great Salt Lake:88

article: Great Salt Lake

evidence: Water levels have been recorded since 1875, averaging about 4,200 feet (1,280 m) above sea level.


text: By 2100 the seas will rise another 6 inches or so—a far cry from Al Gore’s alarming numbers

evidence_id: Mediterranean Sea:274

article: Mediterranean Sea

evidence: [citation needed] By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result of the effects of climate change.

evidence_id: Mediterranean Sea:277

article: Mediterranean Sea

evidence: A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.

evidence_id: Mediterranean Sea:281

article: Mediterranean Sea

evidence: Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.

evidence_id: Mediterranean Sea:672

article: Mediterranean Sea

evidence: "Mediterranean Sea Level Could Rise By Over Two Feet, Global Models Predict".

article: Sea

evidence: The pH is expected to reach 7.7 (representing a 3-fold increase in hydrogen ion concentration) by the year 2100, which is a significant change in a century.


text: Mr. Singer is a professor emeritus of environmental science at the University of Virginia.

evidence_id: Fred Singer:0

article: Fred Singer

evidence: Siegfried Fred Singer (born September 27, 1924) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia.

evidence_id: Fred Singer:74

article: Fred Singer

evidence: Singer accepted a professorship in Environmental Sciences at the University of Virginia in 1971, a position he held until 1994, where he taught classes on environmental issues such as ozone depletion, acid rain, climate change, population growth, and public policy issues related to oil and energy.

evidence_id: Fred Singer:76

article: Fred Singer

evidence: When he retired from Virginia in 1994, he became Distinguished Research Professor at the Institute for Humane Studies at George Mason University until 2000.

evidence_id: Fred Singer:8

article: Fred Singer

evidence: He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994, and with George Mason University until 2000.

evidence_id: The Great Global Warming Swindle:275

article: The Great Global Warming Swindle

evidence: Patrick Michaels – Research Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia Patrick Moore – Early member of Greenpeace and former president, Greenpeace Canada Paul Reiter – Professor, Department of Medical Entomology, Pasteur Institute, Paris Nir Shaviv – Professor, Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem James Shikwati – Economist, Author, and CEO of The African Executive Frederick Singer – Professor Emeritus, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (Misidentified in the film as Former Director, U.S. National Weather Service.


text: Some experts think we’re on track to hit 550 ppm by the end of the century, which would cause average global temperatures to rise by 6 degrees Celsius

evidence_id: 20th century:6

article: 20th century

evidence: The average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since 1880; Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15-0.20 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:7

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:547

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The oft-cited Mauna Loa average for 2012 is 393.8 ppm, which is a good approximation although typically about 1 ppm higher than the spatial average given above.

evidence_id: Nuclear holocaust:4

article: Nuclear holocaust

evidence: In one model, the average temperature of Earth following a full thermonuclear war falls for several years by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius (13 to 15 degrees Fahrenheit) on average.


text: an individual heatwave triggering coral bleaching cannot be linked to global warming as the process triggering an individual heatwave is fundamentally different from that triggering global warming

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:24

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by global warming.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:51

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans.

evidence_id: Coral bleaching:679

article: Coral bleaching

evidence: "Diversity of Corals, Algae in Warm Indian Ocean Suggests Resilience to Future Global Warming".

evidence_id: Coral reef:367

article: Coral reef

evidence: Similar rapid adaption may protect coral reefs from global warming.

evidence_id: Great Barrier Reef:95

article: Great Barrier Reef

evidence: The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considers the greatest threat to the Great Barrier Reef to be climate change, causing ocean warming which increases coral bleaching.


text: Scientists just discovered a massive, heretofore unknown, source of nitrogen

evidence_id: Nitrogen fixation:19

article: Nitrogen fixation

evidence: Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.

article: Nitrogen

evidence: It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772.

article: Nitrogen

evidence: Dinitrogen difluoride (N2F2) exists as thermally interconvertible cis and trans isomers, and was first found as a product of the thermal decomposition of FN3.

article: Nitrogen

evidence: The discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air.

article: Nitrogen

evidence: It is one of the three most used acids (the other two being sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid) and was first discovered by the alchemists in the 13th century.


text: If Houlton’s finding about these vast, previously unknown nitrogen stores holds true, then it would have an enormous impact on global warming predictions.

article: Arctic

evidence: Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region.

evidence_id: General circulation model:91

article: General circulation model

evidence: In a projection designed to simulate a future where no efforts are made to reduce global emissions, the likely rise in global average temperature was predicted to be 5.5 °C by 2100.

evidence_id: Global cooling:3

article: Global cooling

evidence: By the 1970s, scientists were becoming increasingly aware that estimates of global temperatures showed cooling since 1945, as well as the possibility of large scale warming due to emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global cooling:68

article: Global cooling

evidence: When the model included estimated changes in solar intensity, it gave a reasonable match to temperatures over the previous thousand years and its prediction was that "CO 2 warming dominates the surface temperature patterns soon after 1980."

evidence_id: Peak oil:360

article: Peak oil

evidence: A consensus was emerging that parties to an international agreement would introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 °C that scientists predicted would limit environmental harm to tolerable levels.


text: ‘there will not be enough nitrogen available to sustain the high carbon uptake scenarios.’

evidence_id: Carnivorous plant:220

article: Carnivorous plant

evidence: The net uptake of carbon dioxide, and therefore, the plant's potential for growth, must be positive for the plant to survive.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:298

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: Studies have shown that higher CO2 levels lead to reduced plant uptake of nitrogen (and a smaller number showing the same for trace elements such as zinc) resulting in crops with lower nutritional value.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:317

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: However, because the ratio of soil organic carbon to nitrogen is mediated by soil biology such that it maintains a narrow range, a doubling of soil organic carbon is likely to imply a doubling in the storage of nitrogen in soils as organic nitrogen, thus providing higher available nutrient levels for plants, supporting higher yield potential.

evidence_id: Miscanthus giganteus:111

article: Miscanthus giganteus

evidence: dead leaves), direct humus accumulation, the well-developed and deep-reaching root system, the low decomposition rates of plant residues due to a high C : N ratio (carbon to nitrogen ratio), and the absence of tillage and subsequently less soil aeration are the reasons for the high carbon sequestration rates.

evidence_id: Miscanthus giganteus:242

article: Miscanthus giganteus

evidence: The authors note that due to the high carbon to nitrogen ratio it is in the field's margins and interspersed woodlands that the majority of the food resources are to be found.


text: “Houlton has been exploring this possibility for years.

evidence_id: Farleigh Hungerford Castle:106

article: Farleigh Hungerford Castle

evidence: Edward later fell out with the king over the proposal that the Roman Catholic James II should succeed to the throne on Charles's death, and after the discovery of the Rye House Plot in 1683 the castle was searched by royal officials looking for stocks of weapons that might be used in a possible revolt.

evidence_id: Farleigh Hungerford Castle:154

article: Farleigh Hungerford Castle

evidence: Kightly suggests that the castle was sold to the Houlton family in 1705, rather than 1730; Jackson disagrees.

evidence_id: Marcus Davis:31

article: Marcus Davis

evidence: Both fighters are former boxers and had discussed a potential fight in their futures since early 2008.

evidence_id: Thirty Years' War:484

article: Thirty Years' War

evidence: The Last Valley (1959), by John Pick, is about two men fleeing the Thirty Years' War.

evidence_id: Thirty Years' War:497

article: Thirty Years' War

evidence: The Last Valley (1971) is a film starring Michael Caine and Omar Sharif, who discover a temporary haven from the Thirty Years' War.


text: The Arctic’s carbon bomb might be even more potent than we thought […] methane, a shorter-lived but far harder-hitting gas that could cause faster bursts of warming

evidence_id: Arctic Ocean:174

article: Arctic Ocean

evidence: Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and marine genus and species to become extinct.

evidence_id: Arctic methane emissions:79

article: Arctic methane emissions

evidence: Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle.

article: Arctic

evidence: The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.

article: Arctic

evidence: Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:32

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Warming is also the triggering variable for the release of carbon (potentially as methane) in the arctic.


text: “Although the extent of the summer sea ice after 2006 dropped abruptly to levels not expected until 2050, the predicted 67-per-cent decline in polar bear numbers simply didn’t happen.

evidence_id: Polar bear:357

article: Polar bear

evidence: Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall.

evidence_id: Polar bear:374

article: Polar bear

evidence: Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%, although the population was listed as "stable" as of 2017.

evidence_id: Polar bear:377

article: Polar bear

evidence: The proportion of maternity dens on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985 through 1994, to 37% over the years 1998 through 2004.

evidence_id: Polar bear:397

article: Polar bear

evidence: Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated.

evidence_id: Polar bear:404

article: Polar bear

evidence: Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today.


text: Rather, global polar bear numbers have been stable or slightly improved.”

evidence_id: Polar bear:10

article: Polar bear

evidence: For decades, large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species, but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect.

evidence_id: Polar bear:347

article: Polar bear

evidence: Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities.

evidence_id: Polar bear:400

article: Polar bear

evidence: However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.

article: Polar bear

evidence_id: Polar bear:61

article: Polar bear

evidence: Of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations, one is in decline, two are increasing, seven are stable, and nine have insufficient data, as of 2017.


text: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

evidence_id: Polar bear:139

article: Polar bear

evidence: The Arctic is home to millions of seals, which become prey when they surface in holes in the ice in order to breathe, or when they haul out on the ice to rest.

evidence_id: Polar bear:173

article: Polar bear

evidence: Unlike brown and black bears, polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall, when they cannot hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen.

evidence_id: Polar bear:218

article: Polar bear

evidence: Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice, where the mother can once again catch seals.

evidence_id: Polar bear:402

article: Polar bear

evidence: It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice they use to hunt seals disappears.

evidence_id: Polar bear:7

article: Polar bear

evidence: Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present.


text: many scientists were surprised when other researchers subsequently found that ringed and bearded seals (the primary prey of polar bears) north of the Bering Strait especially thrived with a longer open-water season, which is particularly conducive to fishing

evidence_id: Bearded seal:54

article: Bearded seal

evidence: Natural predators of the bearded seal include polar bears, who rely on these seals as a major food source.

evidence_id: Marine mammal:130

article: Marine mammal

evidence: The polar bear is the most carnivorous species of bear, and its diet primarily consists of ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded (Erignathus barbatus) seals.

evidence_id: Polar bear:138

article: Polar bear

evidence: The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family, and throughout most of its range, its diet primarily consists of ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus).

evidence_id: Polar bear:66

article: Polar bear

evidence: The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads (temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice), to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet.

evidence_id: Ringed seal:3

article: Ringed seal

evidence: Ringed seals are one of the primary prey of polar bears and killer whales, and have long been a component of the diet of indigenous people of the Arctic.