text: "We have been grossly misled to think there is tens of thousands of times as much CO2 as there is!

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:109

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are approximately 0.645 billion tonnes of CO 2 per year, whereas humans contribute 29 billion tonnes of CO 2 each year.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:111

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:17

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: As of 2006 the annual airborne fraction for CO 2 was about 0.45.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:184

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Total anthropogenic emissions at the end of 2009 were estimated at 49.5 gigatonnes CO 2-equivalent.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:328

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: "CO2 in the atmosphere just exceeded 415 parts per million for the first time in human history".


text: If the public were aware that man-made CO2 is so incredibly small there would be very little belief in a climate disaster ..."

claim_label: DISPUTED

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:149

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: Steven Quiring, climatologist from Texas A&M University added that "whether scientists like it or not, An Inconvenient Truth has had a much greater impact on public opinion and public awareness of global climate change than any scientific paper or report."

article: Bread

evidence: CO2 generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:1165

article: Climate change denial

evidence: In Britain, only 43% believe man-made global warming is a fact, down from… 55% in July.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:425

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Gelbspan 1998 p. 3 "But some individuals do not want the public to know about the immediacy and extent of the climate threat.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:658

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Rennie 2009: "Claim 1: Anthropogenic CO2 can't be changing climate, because CO2 is only a trace gas in the atmosphere and the amount produced by humans is dwarfed by the amount from volcanoes and other natural sources.


text: While methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, there is over 200 times more CO2 in the atmosphere.

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:20

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: Methane in the Earth's atmosphere is a strong greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) 104 times greater than CO2 in a 20-year time frame; methane is not as persistent a gas as CO2 (assuming no change in carbon sequestration rates) and tails off to about GWP of 28 for a 100-year time frame.

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:237

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: Methane is a strong GHG with a global warming potential 84 times greater than CO2 in a 20-year time frame.

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:4

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: That is, over a 20-year period, it traps 84 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide (CO2) and 32 times the effect when accounting for aerosol interactions.

evidence_id: Atmospheric methane:81

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: Since methane gas is twenty-five times stronger (for a given weight, averaged over 100 years) than CO 2 as a greenhouse gas; this would immensely magnify the greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Natural gas:217

article: Natural gas

evidence: Natural gas is thus a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide due to the greater global-warming potential of methane.


text: "A United Nations report has identified the world's  rapidly growing herds of cattle as the greatest threat to the climate,  forests and wildlife. ...

article: Madagascar

evidence: The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population and other environmental threats.

evidence_id: United Nations Development Programme:55

article: United Nations Development Programme

evidence: Major programmes underway are: ART Global Initiative World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty Territorial Approach to Climate Change Africa–Kazakhstan Partnership for the SDGs Since 1991, the UNDP has annually published the Human Development Report, which includes topics on Human Development and the annual Human Development Index.

evidence_id: United Nations Environment Programme:54

article: United Nations Environment Programme

evidence: UNEP in 2005, 15 years ago, predicted "50 million people could become environmental refugees by 2010, fleeing the effects of climate change."'

evidence_id: United Nations:180

article: United Nations

evidence: Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period.

article: Wildlife

evidence: Destroying the nesting habitats of these birds would cause a decrease in the cattle population because of the spread of insect-borne diseases.


text: ...Livestock are responsible for 18 per cent of the  greenhouse gases that cause global warming, more than cars, planes and  all other forms of transport put together.

article: Agriculture

evidence: It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents.

article: Agriculture

evidence: Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO 2 and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:229

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.

article: Livestock

evidence: The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has estimated that agriculture (including not only livestock, but also food crop, biofuel and other production) accounted for about 10 to 12 percent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2005 and in 2010.Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day, that accounts for from 35 to 40% of the overall methane emissions of the planet.

article: Methane

evidence: A 2013 study estimated that livestock accounted for 44% of human-induced methane and ~15% of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions.


text: Burning fuel to produce fertiliser to grow feed, to  produce meat and to transport it - and clearing vegetation for grazing -  produces 9 per cent of all emissions of carbon dioxide, the most common  greenhouse gas.

article: Agriculture

article: Agriculture

evidence: Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:14

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal, peat, petroleum and natural gas.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:291

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:7

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion and agriculture (including livestock).


text: And their wind and manure emit more than one third of  emissions of another, methane, which warms the world 20 times faster  than carbon dioxide.

article: Atmospheric methane

evidence: Methane is a strong GHG with a global warming potential 84 times greater than CO2 in a 20-year time frame.

article: Biogas

evidence: The methane in biogas is 28 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

article: Methane

evidence: Methane is an important greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 34 compared to CO2 (potential of 1) over a 100-year period, and 72 over a 20-year period.

article: Methane

evidence: Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released.

evidence_id: Natural gas:216

article: Natural gas

evidence: While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is relatively short when compared to carbon dioxide, with a half-life of about 7 years, it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere, so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the global-warming potential of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period and 28 times over a 100-year period.


text: Individual carbon dioxide molecules have a short life time of around 5 years in the atmosphere.

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:177

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere is a trace gas, currently (mid 2018) having a global average concentration of 409 parts per million by volume (or 622 parts per million by mass).

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:193

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of these other gases combined and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime (hundreds to thousands of years).

evidence_id: Global warming:161

article: Global warming

evidence: This is due to carbon dioxide's very long lifetime in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:65

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:69

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The atmospheric lifetime of CO 2 is estimated of the order of 30–95 years.


text: The final amount of extra CO2 that remains in the atmosphere stays there on a time scale of centuries.

evidence_id: Carbon price:204

article: Carbon price

evidence: the CO2 concentration already released into the atmosphere since the beginning of industrialization, which has risen from well below 300 PPM to more than 415 PPM (2019).

evidence_id: Global warming:160

article: Global warming

evidence: Long-term effects of global warming: On the timescale of centuries to millennia, the magnitude of global warming will be determined primarily by anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming:551

article: Global warming

evidence: Eventually, the land and oceans will take up most of the extra carbon dioxide, but as much as 20 percent may remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years."

evidence_id: Global warming:63

article: Global warming

evidence: Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values have not been this high for millions of years.

article: Petroleum

evidence: Atmospheric CO2 has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 390 ppmv, from the 180 – 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years This rise in temperature has reduced the Arctic ice cap to 1,100,000 sq mi (2,800,000 km2),[citation needed] smaller than ever recorded.


text: [T]he overwhelming majority of peer-reviewed studies  [find] that CO2 in the atmosphere remained there a short time.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:111

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Some climate change denial groups say that because CO 2 is only a trace gas in the atmosphere (roughly 400ppm, or 0.04%, 4 parts per 10,000) it can only have a minor effect on the climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:278

article: Global warming

evidence: Scientific discussion takes place in journal articles that are peer-reviewed, which scientists subject to assessment every couple of years in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports.

evidence_id: Global warming:61

article: Global warming

evidence: In 2013, CO2 readings taken at the world's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassing 400 ppm for the first time.

evidence_id: Peer review:0

article: Peer review

evidence: Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competences as the producers of the work (peers).

evidence_id: Three Mile Island accident:181

article: Three Mile Island accident

evidence: A peer-reviewed research article by Dr. Steven Wing found a significant increase in cancers from 1979–1985 among people who lived within ten miles of TMI; in 2009 Dr. Wing stated that radiation releases during the accident were probably "thousands of times greater" than the NRC's estimates.


text: CO2 levels are measured by hundreds of stations scattered across 66 countries which all report the same rising trend.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:153

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) continuously releases data about CO 2 emissions, budget and concentration at individual observation stations.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:163

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: Now measurements are made at many sites globally.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:167

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: There are several surface measurement (including flasks and continuous in situ) networks including NOAA/ERSL, WDCGG, and RAMCES.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:111

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:127

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.


text: "The Keeling curve, which is widely used to show the increase in CO2 emissions, is based on data from the top of Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:0

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: The Keeling Curve is a graph of the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory on the island of Hawaii from 1958 to the present day.

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:143

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: "Carbon dioxide tops 400 ppm at Mauna Loa, Hawaii".

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:16

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: Keeling’s Tellus article of 1960 presented the first monthly CO 2 records from Mauna Loa and Antarctica (1957 to 1960), finding a “distinct seasonal cycle…and possibly, a worldwide rise in CO2 from year to year.” By the 1970s, it was well established that the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide was ongoing and due to anthropogenic emissions.

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:17

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: Carbon dioxide measurements at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii are made with a type of infrared spectrophotometer, now known as a nondispersive infrared sensor, that is calibrated using World Meteorological Organization standards.

evidence_id: Keeling Curve:8

article: Keeling Curve

evidence: Charles David Keeling, of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego, was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations at the South Pole, and on Mauna Loa, Hawaii from March 1958 onwards.


text: To claim that humidity is decreasing requires you ignore a multitude of independent reanalyses that all show increasing humidity.

evidence_id: Dew point:16

article: Dew point

evidence: When the moisture content remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases, but the dew point remains constant.

article: Humidity

evidence: Heating cold outdoor air can decrease relative humidity levels indoors to below 30%, leading to ailments such as dry skin, cracked lips, dry eyes and excessive thirst.

article: Humidity

evidence: As temperature decreases, the amount of water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases.

article: Humidity

evidence: As the temperature of a parcel of air decreases it will eventually reach the saturation point without adding or losing water mass.

article: Humidity

evidence: Under conditions of high humidity, the rate of evaporation of sweat from the skin decreases.


text: It fails to explain how we can have short-term positive feedback and long-term negative feedback.

evidence_id: Complex system:79

article: Complex system

evidence: Relationships contain feedback loops Both negative (damping) and positive (amplifying) feedback are always found in complex systems.

evidence_id: Ice age:113

article: Ice age

evidence: Each glacial period is subject to positive feedback which makes it more severe, and negative feedback which mitigates and (in all cases so far) eventually ends it.

evidence_id: Operant conditioning:259

article: Operant conditioning

evidence: This provided immediate feedback and acted as positive reinforcement for a soldier's behavior.

evidence_id: Perceptual control theory:4

article: Perceptual control theory

evidence: PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment.

evidence_id: Tipping points in the climate system:31

article: Tipping points in the climate system

evidence: There are many positive and negative feedbacks to global temperatures and the carbon cycle that have been identified.


text: "...the largest of all the positive or temperature-amplifying feedbacks in  the UN’s arsenal is the water-vapor feedback.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:128

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the increase in water vapor content makes the atmosphere warm further; this warming causes the atmosphere to hold still more water vapor (a positive feedback), and so on until other processes stop the feedback loop.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:8

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:107

article: Global warming

evidence: The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and probably the net effect of clouds.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:181

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming.

evidence_id: Runaway greenhouse effect:19

article: Runaway greenhouse effect

evidence: An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth.


text: (2009) have demonstrated recently  – the upper troposphere (the only place where adding CO2 to the  atmosphere could make any difference to temperature) is considerably  drier than the models are tuned to expect."

evidence_id: Atmosphere of Jupiter:248

article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

evidence: In 2010, astronomers imaged the GRS in the far infrared (from 8.5 to 24 μm) with a spatial resolution higher than ever before and found that its central, reddest region is warmer than its surroundings by between 3–4 K. The warm airmass is located in the upper troposphere in the pressure range of 200–500 mbar.

evidence_id: Sea surface temperature:84

article: Sea surface temperature

evidence: At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this height, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection.

article: Troposphere

evidence: If the upper air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate ( d S / d z > 0 {\displaystyle dS/dz>0} ), then when a parcel of air rises and expands, it will arrive at the new height at a lower temperature than its surroundings.

article: Troposphere

evidence: If, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate, then when the air parcel rises to its new height it will have a higher temperature and a lower density than its surroundings, and will continue to accelerate upward.

article: Uranus

evidence: The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K (−224 and −216 °C; −371 and −357 °F) depending on planetary latitude.


text: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

article: Neptune

evidence: The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4.5 billion km (about 30.1 astronomical units (AU)), and it completes an orbit on average every 164.79 years, subject to a variability of around ±0.1 years.

article: Neptune

evidence: Neptune's 164 year orbital period means that the planet takes an average of 13 years to move through each constellation of the zodiac.

article: Neptune

evidence: Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 au (4.5 billion km; 2.8 billion mi).

article: Pluto

evidence: The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 au with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years.

article: Pluto

evidence: Pluto has yet to complete a full orbit of the Sun since its discovery, as one Plutonian year is 247.68 years long.


text: "A new storm and a new red spot on Jupiter hints at climate change, USA TODAY and dozens of other sources explained yesterday.

evidence_id: Atmosphere of Jupiter:230

article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

evidence: The Great Red Spot (GRS) is a persistent anticyclonic storm, 22° south of Jupiter's equator; observations from Earth establish a minimum storm lifetime of 350 years.

evidence_id: Atmosphere of Jupiter:288

article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

evidence: The new storm, previously a white spot in Hubble images, turned red in May 2008.

article: Jupiter

evidence: "New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter".

article: Jupiter

evidence: "New storm on Jupiter hints at climate changes".

article: Jupiter

evidence: The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth, located 22° south of the equator.


text: The temperatures are expected to change by as much as 10 Fahrenheit degrees at different places of the globe.

article: Earth

evidence: At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi).

article: Earth

evidence: As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude from the equator.

article: Earth

evidence: This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.

article: Earth

evidence: About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach 70 °C (158 °F).

article: Fahrenheit

evidence: A temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius.


text: At least close to the new spot and to the equator, nothing less than global warming is expected"

article: Cloud

evidence: It is most prevalent in and along low pressure zones of surface tropospheric convergence which encircle the Earth close to the equator and near the 50th parallels of latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres.

article: Cloud

evidence: The water reacts by radiating, also in the infrared, both upward and downward, and the downward longwave radiation results in increased warming at the surface.

evidence_id: Global warming:11

article: Global warming

evidence: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.

evidence_id: Global warming:1783

article: Global warming

evidence: "A novel probabilistic forecast system predicting anomalously warm 2018–2022 reinforcing the long-term global warming trend".

evidence_id: Global warming:81

article: Global warming

evidence: In the tropics the net effect is to produce a significant warming, while at latitudes closer to the poles a loss of albedo leads to an overall cooling effect.


text: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

article: Jupiter

evidence: Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives.

article: Jupiter

evidence: The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.

article: Jupiter

evidence: Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorial region.

article: Jupiter

evidence: Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.

article: Neptune

evidence: As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun.


text: In a paper published online this week in the Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmosphere, economics professor Ross McKitrick says the resulting discrepancies may be leading to an overstatement of the role of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:98

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system", and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:281

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: On the day of publication, the ExxonMobil funded lobbying website Tech Central Station issued a press release headed "TCS Newsflash: Important Global Warming Study Audited – Numerous Errors Found; New Research Reveals the UN IPCC 'Hockey Stick' Theory of Climate Change is Flawed" announcing that "Canadian business executive Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick have presented more evidence that the 20th century wasn't the warmest on record".

evidence_id: Ice age:153

article: Ice age

evidence: At a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (December 17, 2008), scientists detailed evidence in support of the controversial idea that the introduction of large-scale rice agriculture in Asia, coupled with extensive deforestation in Europe began to alter world climate by pumping significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over the last 1,000 years.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:110

evidence: The executive summary of the WG I Summary for Policymakers report says they are certain that emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:59

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: A retired journalist for The New York Times, William K. Stevens wrote: "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.


text: The "decline" refers to a decline in northern tree-rings, not global temperature, and is openly discussed in papers and the IPCC reports.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:67

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: The implications of the decline are discussed in Chapter 2 of the IPCC Third Assessment Report, and in Chapter 6 of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) which describes discussion of various possible reasons for the divergence which does not affect all the trees, and says that there is no consensus about the cause.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:81

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: Several scientific sources state that the decline being referred to is a decline in tree ring climate proxy metrics, not temperature.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:89

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: The issues with tree rings had not been hidden, but were extensively discussed in scientific literature and in IPCC reports.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:44

evidence: This "decline" referred to the well-discussed tree-ring divergence problem, but these two phrases were taken out of context by global warming sceptics, including US Senator Jim Inhofe and former Governor of Alaska Sarah Palin, as though they referred to some decline in measured global temperatures, even though they were written when temperatures were at a record high.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:157

evidence: "Robust findings" of the Synthesis report include: "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level".


text: "Mike's Nature trick" has nothing to do with "hide the decline", instead refering to a technique by Michael Mann to plot instrumental temperature along with past reconstructions.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:57

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: "Mike's Nature trick" referred to Michael E. Mann's paper on temperature trends published by Michael Mann in Nature in 1998, which combined various proxy records and related them to actual temperature records: it included a figure later dubbed the ""hockey stick" graph, which clearly distinguished between the proxy and instrumental data.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:43

evidence: Many commentators quoted one email in which Phil Jones said that he had used "Mike's Nature trick" in a 1999 graph for the World Meteorological Organization "to hide the decline" in proxy temperatures derived from tree-ring analyses when measured temperatures were actually rising.

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:86

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: As part of his Phd research, Michael E. Mann worked with seismologist Jeffrey Park on developing statistical techniques for find long term oscillations of natural variability in the instrumental temperature record of global surface temperatures over the last 140 years; Mann & Park 1993 showed patterns relating to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, and Mann & Park 1994 found what was later termed the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation.

evidence_id: Michael E. Mann:46

article: Michael E. Mann

evidence: The same procedure was also used to represent key information in the instrumental temperature record for comparison with the proxy series, enabling validation of the reconstruction.

evidence_id: Michael E. Mann:52

article: Michael E. Mann

evidence: In it, "Spatially resolved global reconstructions of annual surface temperature patterns" were related to "changes in greenhouse-gas concentrations, solar irradiance, and volcanic aerosols" leading to the conclusion that "each of these factors has contributed to the climate variability of the past 400 years, with greenhouse gases emerging as the dominant forcing during the twentieth century.


text: The decline in tree-ring growth is openly discussed in papers and IPCC reports.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit documents:116

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence: Both of the papers referred to were in fact cited and discussed in the IPCC."

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

evidence_id: Global warming:278

article: Global warming

evidence: Scientific discussion takes place in journal articles that are peer-reviewed, which scientists subject to assessment every couple of years in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:201

evidence: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) is a report by the IPCC which was published in 2000.


text: The divergence of tree-ring proxies from temperatures after 1960 is openly discussed in the peer-reviewed literature and the last two IPCC assessment reports.

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

article: Climatic Research Unit documents

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:48

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: Dendroclimatologist Keith Briffa's February 1998 study reporting a divergence problem affecting some tree ring proxies after 1960 warned that this problem had to be taken into account to avoid overestimating past temperatures.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:171

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Geological Society of America (GSA) concurs with assessments by the National Academies of Science (2005), the National Research Council (2006), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that global climate has warmed and that human activities (mainly greenhouse‐gas emissions) account for most of the warming since the middle 1900s.


text: Currently, humans are emitting around 29 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere per year.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:185

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Human activities emit about 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year, while volcanoes emit between 0.2 and 0.3 billion tons.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:13

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year.

evidence_id: Global warming:64

article: Global warming

evidence: Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010 were equivalent to 49 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (using the most recent global warming potentials over 100 years from the AR5 report).

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:109

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are approximately 0.645 billion tonnes of CO 2 per year, whereas humans contribute 29 billion tonnes of CO 2 each year.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:166

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: In current trend, annual emissions will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030.


text: Current CO2 levels are the highest in 15 million years.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:24

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The current concentration may be the highest in the last 20 million years.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:8

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The present concentration is the highest for 14 million years.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:103

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: However, various proxies and modeling suggests larger variations in past epochs; 500 million years ago CO 2 levels were likely 10 times higher than now.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:111

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:127

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.


text: "...there is the contention by Wolfgang Knorr of the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol in England that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are about where they were 160 years ago." (as quoted by Ken Ward Jr.)

article: Botany

evidence: The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods.

article: Eocene

evidence: For example, diverse geochemical and paleontological proxies indicate that at the maximum of global warmth the atmospheric carbon dioxide values were at 700–900 ppm while other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marine boron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 million years.

article: Eocene

evidence: "Paleobotanical Evidence for Near Present-Day Levels of Atmospheric CO2 During Part of the Tertiary".

article: Eocene

evidence: For contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or 0.04%.

evidence_id: Ice age:153

article: Ice age

evidence: At a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (December 17, 2008), scientists detailed evidence in support of the controversial idea that the introduction of large-scale rice agriculture in Asia, coupled with extensive deforestation in Europe began to alter world climate by pumping significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over the last 1,000 years.


text: Warming causes more moisture in the air which leads to more extreme precipitation events.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:84

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Over most of the mid-latitude land masses and wet tropical regions, extreme precipitation events will very likely become more intense and frequent.

evidence_id: Global warming:109

article: Global warming

evidence: As air gets warmer, it can hold more moisture.

evidence_id: Global warming:12

article: Global warming

evidence: Overall, higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfires increase instead.

evidence_id: Global warming:29

article: Global warming

evidence: Further examples include sea level rise, widespread melting of snow and land ice, increased heat content of the oceans, increased humidity, and the earlier timing of spring events, such as the flowering of plants.

evidence_id: Global warming:9

article: Global warming

evidence: The effects of global warming include rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, and expansion of deserts.


text: Far from contradicting global warming, record snowfall is predicted by climate models and consistent with our expectation of more extreme precipitation events.

article: Climate

evidence: These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:28

article: Global warming

evidence: The warming evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, documented by many independent scientific groups; for example, in most continental regions the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation has increased.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:79

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Simultaneously, the capacity of the atmosphere to carry precipitation increases with temperature so that precipitation, in the form of snowfall, increases in global and regional models.

article: Snow

evidence: Snow science often leads to predictive models that include snow deposition, snow melt, and snow hydrology—elements of the Earth's water cycle—which help describe global climate change.

article: Weather

evidence: Climate change caused by human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air is expected to affect the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, extreme temperatures, flooding, high winds, and severe storms.


text: Meanwhile, it will likely to continue to snow in Chicago in the coming days.

article: Chicago

evidence: Winters are cold and snowy, although the city typically sees less snow and rain in winter than that experienced on the East Coast; blizzards do occur, as in 2011.

article: Chicago

evidence: Northeast winds from wintertime cyclones departing south of the region sometimes bring the city lake-effect snow.

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:173

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: Up to 2 to 3 feet (0.6–0.9 m) of snow was forecast for mountainous areas of the state.

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:266

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: On October 29, snow was falling in parts of the state.

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:358

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: Snow was reported in some parts of eastern Ohio and south of Cleveland.


text: There have long been claims that some unspecificed "they" has "changed the name from 'global warming' to 'climate change'".

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):18

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: The term "climate change" is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change (also known as global warming).

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):20

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term climate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):214

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: Shaftel 2016: "'Climate change' and 'global warming' are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings.

evidence_id: Global warming:281

article: Global warming

evidence: In November 2017, a second warning to humanity signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries stated that "the current trajectory of potentially catastrophic climate change due to rising greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural production – particularly from farming ruminants for meat consumption" is "especially troubling".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:212

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: In addition to referring to the IPCC as "[the] world's best climate scientists", they stated that climate change is happening as "the result of emissions since industrialization and we have already set in motion the next 50 years of global warming – what we do from now on will determine how worse it will get."


text: They changed the name from “global warming” to “climate change” after the term global warming just wasn’t working (it was too cold)!

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence_id: Global warming:327

article: Global warming

evidence: Research in the 1950s suggested that temperatures were increasing, and a 1952 newspaper used the term "climate change".

evidence_id: Global warming:330

article: Global warming

evidence: Both the terms global warming and climate change were used only occasionally until 1975, when Wallace Smith Broecker published a scientific paper on the topic, "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?".

evidence_id: Global warming:341

article: Global warming

evidence: Oxford Dictionary chose climate emergency as the word of the year 2019 and defines the term as "a situation in which urgent action is required to reduce or halt climate change and avoid potentially irreversible environmental damage resulting from it".

evidence_id: Global warming:463

article: Global warming

evidence: This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).


text: Measurements of carbon isotopes and falling oxygen in the atmosphere show that rising carbon dioxide is due to the burning of fossil fuels and cannot be coming from the ocean.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:187

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:204

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the increased uptake of carbon dioxide into the oceans is causing a measurable decrease in the pH of the oceans, which is referred to as ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:210

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Gas solubility decreases as the temperature of water increases (except when both pressure exceeds 300 bar and temperature exceeds 393 K, only found near deep geothermal vents) and therefore the rate of uptake from the atmosphere decreases as ocean temperatures rise.

evidence_id: Global warming:218

article: Global warming

evidence: CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:0

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the atmosphere.


text: "The solubility of carbon dioxide in water is listed in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics as a declining function of temperature. ...

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:220

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Also, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) writes in their Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: "The uptake of anthropogenic carbon since 1750 has led to the ocean becoming more acidic with an average decrease in pH of 0.1 units.

evidence_id: Henry's law:84

article: Henry's law

evidence: The following table lists some temperature dependencies: Solubility of permanent gases usually decreases with increasing temperature at around room temperature.

evidence_id: Henry's law:87

article: Henry's law

evidence: Often, the smaller the gas molecule (and the lower the gas solubility in water), the lower the temperature of the maximum of the Henry's law constant.

article: Solubility

evidence: In liquid water at high temperatures, (e.g.

article: Solubility

evidence: that approaching the critical temperature), the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water; the lower dielectric constant results in a less polar solvent.


text: The IPCC’s predicted equilibrium warming path bears no relation to the far lesser rate of “global warming” that has been observed in the 21st century to date.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:112

evidence: They predict that under a "business as usual" (BAU) scenario, global mean temperature will increase by about 0.3 °C per decade during the [21st] century.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:128

evidence: Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least the last 10,000 years.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:23

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions is not consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 °C, relative to pre-industrial levels.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:507

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Since the start of the 20th century, the global mean surface temperature of the Earth has increased by more than 0.7°C and the rate of warming has been largest in the last 30 years.


text: It seems scientists have noticed recently that quite a few planets in our solar system seem to be heating up a bit, including Pluto."

article: Comet

evidence: A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing.

article: Exoplanet

evidence: This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand.

article: Pluto

evidence: The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K).

evidence_id: Solar System:152

article: Solar System

evidence: It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Solar System:196

article: Solar System

evidence: The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating.


text: Pluto's climate change over the last 14 years is likely a seasonal event.

article: Neptune

evidence: The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting forty years.

article: Neptune

evidence: As a result, Neptune experiences similar seasonal changes to Earth.

article: Neptune

evidence: "Evidence for methane escape and strong seasonal and dynamical perturbations of Neptune's atmospheric temperatures".

article: Planet

evidence: Each planet therefore has seasons, changes to the climate over the course of its year.

article: Uranus

evidence: Observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007.


text: Pluto experiences drastic season changes due to an elliptical orbit (that takes 250 Earth years).

article: Pluto

evidence: It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun.

article: Pluto

evidence: Pluto's orbital period is currently about 248 years.

article: Pluto

evidence: The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 au with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years.

article: Pluto

evidence: Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on its "side" in its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness.

article: Pluto

evidence: Pluto has yet to complete a full orbit of the Sun since its discovery, as one Plutonian year is 247.68 years long.


text: There are a myriad of other radiative forcings that affect the planet's energy imbalance.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:15

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Radiative forcing is a measure of how various factors alter the energy balance of the Earth's atmosphere.

evidence_id: Earth's energy budget:67

article: Earth's energy budget

evidence: Climate forcings are changes that cause temperatures to rise or fall, disrupting the energy balance.

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:0

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space.

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:1

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: Changes to Earth's radiative equilibrium, that cause temperatures to rise or fall over decadal periods, are called climate forcings.

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:12

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: The radiation balance is altered by such factors as the intensity of solar energy, reflectivity of clouds or gases, absorption by various greenhouse gases or surfaces and heat emission by various materials.


text: Volcanoes, solar variations, clouds, methane, aerosols - these all change the way energy enters and/or leaves our climate.

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):29

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents, atmosphere, and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.

evidence_id: Climate system:6

article: Climate system

evidence: These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans.

evidence_id: Global cooling:15

article: Global cooling

evidence: Human activity — mostly as a by-product of fossil fuel combustion, partly by land use changes — increases the number of tiny particles (aerosols) in the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Global warming:82

article: Global warming

evidence: Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols – from volcanoes, plankton, and human-made pollutants – reflect incoming sunlight, cooling the climate.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:77

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.


text: While there are many drivers of climate, CO2 is the most dominant radiative forcing and is increasing faster than any other forcing.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:75

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The increased radiative forcing due to increased CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere is based on the physical properties of CO2 and the non-saturated absorption windows where CO2 absorbs outgoing long-wave energy.

evidence_id: Global warming:59

article: Global warming

evidence: Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:117

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Recent data also shows that the concentration is increasing at a higher rate.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:244

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:83

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Positive radiative forcing leads to warming by increasing the net incoming energy, whereas negative radiative forcing leads to cooling.


text: The Independent Climate Change Email Review investigated the CRU scientists' actions relating to peer review.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:135

evidence: Scientific integrity demands robust, independent peer review, however, and AAAS therefore emphasised that investigations are appropriate whenever significant questions are raised regarding the transparency and rigour of the scientific method, the peer-review process, or the responsibility of individual scientists.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:239

evidence: The report, issued on 18 February 2011, cleared the researchers and "did not find any evidence that NOAA inappropriately manipulated data or failed to adhere to appropriate peer review procedures".

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:82

evidence: The review would also scrutinise the CRU's policies and practices for "acquiring, assembling, subjecting to peer review, and disseminating data and research findings" and "their compliance or otherwise with best scientific practice".

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:85

evidence: On 22 March 2010 the university announced the composition of an independent Science Assessment Panel to reassess key CRU papers that have already been peer-reviewed and published in journals.

evidence_id: Soon and Baliunas controversy:142

article: Soon and Baliunas controversy

evidence: The Independent Climate Change Email Review, an independent review funded by the University of East Anglia and chaired by Sir Muir Russell, examined allegations that the emails showed attempts to undermine normal procedures of publication.


text: The Review concluded that CRU's actions were normal and did not threaten the integrity of peer review.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:174

evidence: It found that the CRU's work had been "carried out with integrity" and had used "fair and satisfactory" methods.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:192

evidence: Describing its report as "hugely positive", he stated that "it is especially important that, despite a deluge of allegations and smears against the CRU, this independent group of utterly reputable scientists have concluded that there was no evidence of any scientific malpractice."


text: While it's true that any single country's CO2 emissions reductions will make little difference, only if every nation agrees to limit CO2 emissions can we achieve significant cuts on a global scale.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:368

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: Cost-effective 2 °C scenarios project annual global greenhouse gas emissions to peak before the year 2020, with deep cuts in emissions thereafter, leading to a reduction in 2050 of 41% compared to 1990 levels.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:531

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: "Cut Global Emissions by 7.6 Percent Every Year for Next Decade to Meet 1.5°C Paris Target - UN Report".

evidence_id: Emissions trading:431

article: Emissions trading

evidence: It is one of the ways countries can meet their obligations under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon emissions and thereby mitigate global warming.

evidence_id: Global warming:392

article: Global warming

evidence: Decision 1/CP.16, paragraph 4, in UNFCCC: Cancun 2010: "deep cuts in global greenhouse gas emissions are required according to science, and as documented in the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, with a view to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions so as to hold the increase in global average temperature below 2 °C above preindustrial levels".

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:292

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010.


text: Australia accounts for 1.5 per cent of global carbon emissions.

article: Agriculture

evidence: It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents.

article: Australia

evidence: "Australia's carbon dioxide emissions twice world rate".

article: Australia

evidence: Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations.

evidence_id: Climate change and agriculture:6

article: Climate change and agriculture

evidence: Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% of global annual emissions in 2010.

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:333

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.


text: Monckton appears to have cherry-picked temperature data from a few stations.

evidence_id: British Columbia:561

article: British Columbia

evidence: Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data.

evidence_id: Christopher Monckton, 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley:72

evidence: He says a greenhouse effect exists, and that carbon dioxide contributes to it, but claims there is no "causative link" from CO2-concentration to global average temperature.

evidence_id: Christopher Monckton, 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley:74

evidence: Monckton's opinions contradict the scientific opinion on climate change, where there is consensus for anthropogenic global warming, and show a decisive link between carbon dioxide concentration and global average temperatures.

evidence_id: Terra Nova Expedition:158

article: Terra Nova Expedition

evidence: Gear, clothes, and sleeping bags were constantly iced up; on 5 July, the temperature fell below −77 °F (−61 °C)—"109 degrees of frost—as cold as anyone would want to endure in darkness and iced up clothes", wrote Cherry-Garrard.

evidence_id: Terra Nova Expedition:316

article: Terra Nova Expedition

evidence: The meteorological data collected was the longest unbroken weather record in the early twentieth century, providing baselines for current assessments of climate change.


text: The full data for latitudes 64-90°N reveal the Arctic is warmer today than in 1940.

evidence_id: Arctic fox:115

article: Arctic fox

evidence: Globally, the Pliocene was about 2–3 °C warmer than today, and the Arctic during the summer in the mid-Pliocene was 8 °C warmer.

article: Arctic

evidence: Another definition of the Arctic is the region where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.

article: Arctic

evidence: Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F).

article: Arctic

evidence: The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.

article: Arctic

evidence: Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking.


text: When you account for the effects which are not reflected in the market price of fossil fuels, like air pollution and health impacts, the true cost of coal and other fossil fuels is higher than the cost of most renewable energy technologies.

evidence_id: Energy industry:42

article: Energy industry

evidence: The large-scale use of renewable energy technologies would "greatly mitigate or eliminate a wide range of environmental and human health impacts of energy use".

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:107

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: Fossil fuel prices generally are below their actual costs, or their "efficient prices," when economic externalities, such as the costs of air pollution and global climate destruction, are taken into account.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:83

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:93

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: Moreover, these environmental pollutions impacts on the human beings because its particles of the fossil fuel on the air cause negative health effects when inhaled by people.

evidence_id: Human impact on the environment:248

article: Human impact on the environment

evidence: The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern.


text: [Wind energy] is a more expensive way of producing energy than the alternative.

evidence_id: Alternative fuel:51

article: Alternative fuel

evidence: However, U.S. civilian nuclear power is considerably more expensive than wind power.

evidence_id: Wind power:236

article: Wind power

evidence: The modeling also shows that "even without a carbon price (the most efficient way to reduce economy-wide emissions) wind energy is 14% cheaper than new coal and 18% cheaper than new gas."

evidence_id: Wind power:239

article: Wind power

evidence: Costs of production from coal fired plants built in "the 1970s and 1980s" are cheaper than renewable energy sources because of depreciation.

evidence_id: Wind power:430

article: Wind power

evidence: "Wind power is cheapest energy, EU analysis finds".

evidence_id: Wind power:942

article: Wind power

evidence: "Renewable energy now cheaper than new fossil fuels in Australia".


text: 'Antarctic sea ice set a new record in October 2007, as photographs distributed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration showed penguins and other cold-weather creatures able to stand farther north on Southern Hemisphere sea ice than has ever been recorded.

article: Antarctica

evidence: "A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic".

article: Antarctica

evidence: The extent of sea ice around Antarctica (in terms of square kilometers of coverage) has remained roughly constant in recent decades, although the amount of variation it has experienced in its thickness is unclear.

article: Antarctica

evidence: B. C. "Antarctica appears to have broken a heat record".

article: Cryosphere

evidence: The overall trend indicated in the passive microwave record from 1978 through mid-1995 shows that the extent of Arctic sea ice is decreasing 2.7% per decade.

article: Sea

evidence: Increased melting of Arctic ice since 2007 enables ships to travel the Northwest Passage for some weeks in summertime, avoiding the longer routes via the Suez Canal or the Panama Canal.


text: The news of expanding Antarctic sea ice stole headlines from global warming alarmists who asserted Arctic sea ice had reached its lowest extent since 1979.'

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:19

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: The net change is a slight increase in the area of sea ice in the Antarctic seas (unlike the Arctic Ocean, which is showing a much stronger decrease in the area of sea ice).

evidence_id: Antarctic sea ice:25

article: Antarctic sea ice

evidence: Sea ice coverage in the Arctic has shrunk at a much faster rate than it has expanded in the Southern Ocean.

article: Antarctica

evidence_id: Arctic sea ice decline:26

article: Arctic sea ice decline

evidence: For January 2016, the satellite based data showed the lowest overall Arctic sea ice extent of any January since records begun in 1979.

evidence_id: Climate change in the Arctic:0

article: Climate change in the Arctic

evidence: The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.


text: The result did suggest the sea level  was increasing in the western Pacific, but this was offset by a drop in  the level near the Alaskan coast.

evidence_id: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami:287

evidence: with a marginal drop in sea level.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:248

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Five of the Solomon Islands have disappeared due to the combined effects of sea level rise and stronger trade winds that were pushing water into the Western Pacific.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:41

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Satellites are useful for measuring regional variations in sea level, such as the substantial rise between 1993 and 2012 in the western tropical Pacific.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:415

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Multidecadal sea level anomalies and trends in the western tropical Pacific".

evidence_id: Settlement of the Americas:12

article: Settlement of the Americas

evidence: A drop of eustatic sea level by about 60 m to 120 m lower than present-day levels, commencing around 30,000 years BP, created Beringia, a durable and extensive geographic feature connecting Siberia with Alaska.


text: “Our analyses do not indicate  acceleration in sea level in U.S. tide gauge records during the 20th  century,” the study’s authors concluded.

evidence_id: Past sea level:89

article: Past sea level

evidence: This compares to an average rate of 1.7 ± 0.5 mm per year for the 20th century.

evidence_id: Past sea level:92

article: Past sea level

evidence: Based on tide gauge data, the rate of global average sea level rise during the 20th century lies in the range 0.8 to 3.3 mm/yr, with an average rate of 1.8 mm/yr.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:0

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Since at least the start of the 20th century, the average global sea level has been rising.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:163

article: Sea level rise

evidence: For instance, a 2016 study led by Jim Hansen concluded that based on past climate change data, sea level rise could accelerate exponentially in the coming decades, with a doubling time of 10, 20 or 40 years, respectively, raising the ocean by several meters in 50, 100 or 200 years.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:308

article: Sea level rise

evidence: More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr2.


text: Humans are emitting 26 gigatonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:185

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Human activities emit about 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year, while volcanoes emit between 0.2 and 0.3 billion tons.

evidence_id: Fossil fuel:13

article: Fossil fuel

evidence: The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:109

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are approximately 0.645 billion tonnes of CO 2 per year, whereas humans contribute 29 billion tonnes of CO 2 each year.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:169

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The pharmaceutical industry emitted 52 megatonnes of Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in 2015.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:184

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Total anthropogenic emissions at the end of 2009 were estimated at 49.5 gigatonnes CO 2-equivalent.


text: 89 percent of the stations fail to meet the National Weather Service’s own siting requirements that stations must be 30 metres away from an artificial heating or radiating/reflecting heat source.

evidence_id: International Space Station:393

article: International Space Station

evidence: From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station.

evidence_id: Passive solar building design:348

article: Passive solar building design

evidence: This is done using good siting and window positioning, small amounts of thermal mass, with good-but-conventional insulation, weatherization, and an occasional supplementary heat source, such as a central radiator connected to a (solar) water heater.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:139

article: Renewable energy

evidence: Low Temperature Geothermal refers to the use of the outer crust of the earth as a Thermal Battery to facilitate Renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses.

evidence_id: Solar energy:52

article: Solar energy

evidence: In low geographical latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems.

evidence_id: Solar energy:62

article: Solar energy

evidence: Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night.


text: A number of independent studies using near-global satellite data find positive feedback and high climate sensitivity.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:0

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing, and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:10

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Observations and modelling studies indicate that there is a net positive feedback to warming.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:396

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: "High sensitivity of peat decomposition to climate change through water-table feedback".

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:219

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Other analyses have found that the iris effect is a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback proposed by Lindzen.

evidence_id: Global warming:131

article: Global warming

evidence: Models not only project different future temperature with different emissions of greenhouse gases, but also do not fully agree on the strength of different feedbacks on climate sensitivity and the amount of inertia of the system.


text: It appears, for the entire tropics, the observed outgoing radiation fluxes increase with the increase in sea surface temperatures (SSTs).

evidence_id: El Niño:13

article: El Niño

evidence: However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and is the warming of the ocean surface or above-average sea surface temperatures in either the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

evidence_id: El Niño:60

article: El Niño

evidence: However, during the duration of a single event, the area with the greatest sea surface temperature anomalies can change.

article: Eocene

evidence: Using isotope proxies to determine ocean temperatures indicates sea surface temperatures in the tropics as high as 35 °C (95 °F) and, relative to present-day values, bottom water temperatures that are 10 °C (18 °F) higher.

evidence_id: Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone:57

article: Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone

evidence: In tropical and subtropical areas, sea surface temperatures (SSTs) rose 0.2 °C (0.36 °F) within a 50-year period, and in the North Atlantic and Northwestern Pacific tropical cyclone basins, the potential destructiveness and energy of storms nearly doubled within the same duration, evidencing a clear correlation between global warming and tropical cyclone intensities.

evidence_id: Tropical cyclone:137

article: Tropical cyclone

evidence: All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.


text: The observed behavior of radiation fluxes implies negative feedback processes associated with relatively low climate sensitivity.

article: Climate change feedback

article: Climate change feedback

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:9

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere.

article: Global warming

article: Reinforcement

evidence: Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening.


text: When you read Phil Jones' actual words, you see he's saying there is a warming trend

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:196

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:154

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: They concluded that although the 20th century was almost certainly the warmest of the millennium, the amount of anthropogenic warming remains uncertain."

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:175

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: He said there had probably been no global warming since the 1940s, and "Satellite data show no appreciable warming of the global atmosphere since 1979.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:176

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: In fact, if one ignores the unusual El Nino year of 1998, one sees a cooling trend."

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:177

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: From this, he concluded that "The post-1980 global warming trend from surface thermometers is not credible.


text: 'Phil Jones said that for the past 15 years there has been no "statistically significant" warming.

article: Hockey stick controversy

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:89

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: The authors concluded that "Northern Hemisphere mean annual temperatures for three of the past eight years are warmer than any other year since (at least) AD1400", and estimated empirically that greenhouse gases had become the dominant climate forcing during the 20th century.

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:111

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: He said that "Our conclusion was that the warming of the past few decades appears to be closely tied to emission of greenhouse gases by humans and not any of the natural factors".

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:148

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: The reconstruction found significant variability around a long-term cooling trend of –0.02 °C per century, as expected from orbital forcing, interrupted in the 20th century by rapid warming which stood out from the whole period, with the 1990s "the warmest decade, and 1998 the warmest year, at moderately high levels of confidence."


text: "a [cloudcover] change in the Tropics could lead to a negative feedback in the global climate, with a feedback factor of about –1.1, which if correct, would more than cancel all the positive feedbacks in the more sensitive current climate models" (Lindzen et al.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:10

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Observations and modelling studies indicate that there is a net positive feedback to warming.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:136

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The impact of this negative feedback effect is included in global climate models summarized by the IPCC.

evidence_id: Global warming:107

article: Global warming

evidence: The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and probably the net effect of clouds.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:76

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: This hypothesis suggests a negative feedback which would counter the effects of CO 2 warming by lowering the climate sensitivity.

evidence_id: Richard Lindzen:81

article: Richard Lindzen

evidence: The feedback due to water vapor is a major factor in determining how much warming would be expected to occur with increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and all existing computer models assume positive feedback — that is, that as the climate warms, the amount of water vapour held in the atmosphere will increase, leading to further warming.


text: Dropped stations show more warming than kept stations.

evidence_id: Environmental impact of wind power:0

article: Environmental impact of wind power

evidence: Compared with other low-carbon power sources, wind turbines have one of the lowest global warming potentials per unit of electrical energy generated out of any power source.

evidence_id: Environmental impact of wind power:165

article: Environmental impact of wind power

evidence: Overall, wind farms lead to a slight warming at night and a slight cooling during the day time.

evidence_id: Environmental impact of wind power:172

article: Environmental impact of wind power

evidence: Another peer-reviewed study suggested that using wind turbines to meet 10 percent of global energy demand in 2100 could actually have a warming effect, causing temperatures to rise by 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the regions on land where the wind farms are installed, including a smaller increase in areas beyond those regions.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:313

article: Urban heat island

evidence: In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28°C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27°C/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:41

article: Urban heat island

evidence: Throughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are cloudless, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of solar radiation.


text: Two American researchers allege that U.S. government scientists have  skewed global temperature trends by ignoring readings from thousands of  local weather stations around the world, particularly those in colder  altitudes and more northerly latitudes, such as Canada.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:173

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: There were a small number of weather stations in the 1850s, and the number didn't reach the current 3000+ until the 1951 to 1990 period The 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) acknowledged that the urban heat island is an important local effect, but cited analyses of historical data indicating that the effect of the urban heat island on the global temperature trend is no more than 0.05 °C (0.09 °F) degrees through 1990.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:196

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:233

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In a NASA report published in January 2013, Hansen and Sato noted "the 5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing."

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:236

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Using the long-term temperature trends for the earth scientists and statisticians conclude that it continues to warm through time.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:387

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: U.S. officials, such as Philip Cooney, have repeatedly edited scientific reports from US government scientists, many of whom, such as Thomas Knutson, have been ordered to refrain from discussing climate change and related topics.


text: Dropped weather stations actually show a slightly warmer trend compared to kept stations.

evidence_id: New York City:224

article: New York City

evidence: Winters are chilly and damp, and prevailing wind patterns that blow sea breezes offshore temper the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachian Mountains keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis.

article: Photovoltaics

evidence: Another benefit of a floating solar system is that the panels are kept at a lower temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion.

article: Sweden

evidence: However, Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat farther south, mainly because of the combination of the Gulf Stream and the general west wind drift, caused by the direction of planet Earth's rotation.

article: Sweden

evidence: Continental west-coasts (to which all of Scandinavia belongs, as the westernmost part of the Eurasian continent), are notably warmer than continental east-coasts; this can also be seen by comparing e.g.

article: WSEE-TV

evidence: The Newswatch branding was dropped after 28 years to coincide with the switch.


text: There is no way for us to prevent the world’s CO2 emissions    from doubling by 2100"

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:375

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: For example, the emissions reductions proposed by Nordhaus (2010) might lead to global warming (in the year 2100) of around 3 °C, relative to pre-industrial levels.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:288

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Projected annual energy-related CO 2 emissions in 2030 were 40–110% higher than in 2000, with two-thirds of the increase originating in developing countries.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:290

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Projections consistently showed increase in annual world emissions of "Kyoto" gases, measured in CO 2-equivalent) of 25–90% by 2030, compared to 2000.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:958

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: "Global CO 2 emissions: annual increase halves in 2008".

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:186

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Members of the InterAcademy Panel recommended that by 2050, global anthropogenic CO 2 emissions be reduced less than 50% of the 1990 level.


text: The argument that solving the global warming problem by reducing human greenhouse gas emissions is "too hard" generally stems from the belief that (i) our technology is not sufficiently advanced to achieve significant emissions reductions,

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:55

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: At the core of most proposals is the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through reducing energy waste and switching to low-carbon power sources of energy.

evidence_id: Global warming:212

article: Global warming

evidence: Successful adaptation is easier if there are substantial emission reductions.

evidence_id: Global warming:231

article: Global warming

evidence: For example, bicycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions while reducing the effects of a sedentary lifestyle at the same time.

evidence_id: Global warming:232

article: Global warming

evidence: The development and scaling-up of clean technology, such as cement that produces less CO2, is critical to achieve sufficient emission reductions for the Paris agreement goals.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.


text: However, studies have determined that current technology is sufficient to reduce greenhouse gas emissions the necessary amount, and that we can do so without significant impact on the economy.

evidence_id: Carbon tax:4

article: Carbon tax

evidence: Economists generally argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse effects on the economy.

evidence_id: Carbon tax:88

article: Carbon tax

evidence: There is overwhelming agreement among economists that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse effects on the economy.

evidence_id: Carbon tax:90

article: Carbon tax

evidence: A 2015 study of carbon taxes in British Columbia found that the taxes reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 5–15% while having negligible overall economic effects.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:20

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: As is stated in Article 2 of the Convention, this requires that greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:510

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: To reduce the global net economic, environmental and social losses in the face of these impacts, the policy objective must remain squarely focused on returning greenhouse gas concentrations to near pre-industrial levels through the reduction of emissions.


text: "There are many urgent priorities that need the attention of Congress, and it is not for me as an invited guest in your country to say what they are.

evidence_id: Hillary Clinton:354

article: Hillary Clinton

evidence: She responded to General David Petraeus's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying, "I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief."

evidence_id: Nancy Pelosi:123

article: Nancy Pelosi

evidence: Pelosi said Congress had "a moral duty to the brave women and men coming forward to seize this moment and demonstrate real, effective leadership to foster a climate of respect and dignity in the workplace".

evidence_id: Nancy Pelosi:247

article: Nancy Pelosi

evidence: In November, when asked about Democrats beginning the impeachment process against Trump in the event they won a majority of seats in the 2018 elections, Pelosi said it would not be one of their legislative priorities but that the option could be considered if credible evidence appeared during the ongoing investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 election.

evidence_id: Ronald Reagan:389

article: Ronald Reagan

evidence: In a September 1985 press conference, Reagan said: "this is a top priority with us ... there's no question about the seriousness of this and the need to find an answer."

article: Triage

evidence: identify the priority of the patient's need for medical treatment and transport from the emergency scene.


text: Global warming is an increasingly urgent problem.

evidence_id: Global warming:2510

article: Global warming

evidence: "Climate Change and Financial Instability Seen as Top Global Threats".

evidence_id: Global warming:270

article: Global warming

evidence: In 2019, the British Parliament became the first national government in the world to officially declare a climate emergency.

evidence_id: Global warming:291

article: Global warming

evidence: Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects have been increasing, with many perceiving it as the worst global threat.

evidence_id: Global warming:338

article: Global warming

evidence: People who regard climate change as catastrophic, irreversible, or rapid might label climate change as a climate crisis or a climate emergency.

evidence_id: Global warming:341

article: Global warming

evidence: Oxford Dictionary chose climate emergency as the word of the year 2019 and defines the term as "a situation in which urgent action is required to reduce or halt climate change and avoid potentially irreversible environmental damage resulting from it".


text: One more decade of business as usual will make this impossible.

article: Google

evidence: And we hit $50 billion in revenues for the first time last year – not a bad achievement in just a decade and a half."

evidence_id: Mad (magazine):28

article: Mad (magazine)

evidence: DC Comics) and Warner Bros. by the end of that decade.

evidence_id: New Deal:362

article: New Deal

evidence: Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt's 12 years in office there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole.

evidence_id: New Deal:722

article: New Deal

evidence: In Roosevelt's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5% compound annual growth of GDP, the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country, but recovery was slow and by 1939 the gross domestic product (GDP) per adult was still 27% below trend.

article: Self-publishing

evidence: The growth in new titles has been strong, particularly in the past decade.


text: The long term trend from albedo is of cooling.

article: Albedo

evidence: The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.

article: Albedo

evidence: [citation needed] Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth.

article: Albedo

evidence: A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling.

evidence_id: Ice age:0

article: Ice age

evidence: An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:162

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has, for the past 2,000 years, caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend that continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age.


text: "Earth’s Albedo has risen in the past few years, and by doing reconstructions of the past albedo, it appears that there was a significant reduction in Earth’s albedo leading up to a lull in 1997.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:102

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity can be estimated by using reconstructions of Earth's past temperatures and CO 2 levels.

evidence_id: Global warming:112

article: Global warming

evidence: The reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic reduces the albedo of the Earth's surface.

article: Ice age

evidence_id: Ice age:114

article: Ice age

evidence: Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, i.e.

evidence_id: Quaternary glaciation:8

article: Quaternary glaciation

evidence: The ice sheets themselves, by raising the albedo (the extent to which the radiant energy of the Sun is reflected from Earth) created significant feedback to further cool the climate.


text: The most interesting thing here is that the albedo forcings, in watts/sq meter seem to be fairly large.

evidence_id: Earth's energy budget:13

article: Earth's energy budget

evidence: Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units are reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice-covered areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Earth's energy budget:25

article: Earth's energy budget

evidence: This comes to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation.

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:16

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: In this report radiative forcing values are for changes relative to preindustrial conditions defined at 1750 and are expressed in Watts per square meter (W/m2)."

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:25

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: Radiative forcing (measured in watts per square meter) can be estimated in different ways for different components.

evidence_id: Radiative forcing:27

article: Radiative forcing

evidence: "solar forcing"), the radiative forcing is simply the change in the average amount of solar energy absorbed per square meter of the Earth's area.


text: The long term trend from albedo is that of cooling.

article: Albedo

article: Albedo

article: Albedo

article: Albedo

evidence: The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds.

article: Little Ice Age


text: Tree-ring proxy reconstructions are reliable before 1960, tracking closely with the instrumental record and other independent proxies.

evidence_id: Divergence problem:8

article: Divergence problem

evidence: The deviation of some tree ring proxy measurements from the instrumental record since the 1950s raises the question of the reliability of tree ring proxies in the period before the instrumental temperature record.

evidence_id: Michael E. Mann:88

article: Michael E. Mann

evidence: In August 2003 Mann with Phil Jones published reconstructions using various high-resolution proxies including tree rings, ice cores and sediments.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:0

evidence: The temperature record of the past 1,000 years or longer is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:19

evidence: As there are few instrumental records before 1850, temperatures before then must be reconstructed based on proxy methods.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:5

evidence: Individual proxy records, such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology, are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap.


text: Actual reconstructions "diverge" from the instrumental series in the last part of 20th century.

evidence_id: 20th century:8

article: 20th century

evidence: The Marshall Plan—which spent $13 billion ($100 billion in 2018 US dollars) to rebuild the economies of post-war nations—launched "Pax Americana".

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:32

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: Early quantitative reconstructions were published in the 1980s.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:412

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: They were followed in April by a third reconstruction led by Gabriele C. Hegerl.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:483

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: 2009 which reconstructed the climate of the Arctic over the last 2,000 years, and a new method of analysis using Bayesian statistics developed by Martin Tingley and Peter Huybers.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:70

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: The resulting reconstruction went back to 1400, and was published in November as Mann, Park & Bradley 1995.