text: Venus doesn't have a runaway greenhouse effect

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:6

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The planet Venus experienced runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, with surface atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:71

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has long ago been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus, this idea is still largely accepted[citation needed].

evidence_id: Terraforming of Venus:78

article: Terraforming of Venus

evidence: Venus receives about twice the sunlight that Earth does, which is thought to have contributed to its runaway greenhouse effect.

article: Venus

evidence: It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect.

article: Venus

evidence: The CO 2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).


text: Water levels correlate with sunspots

evidence_id: Solar phenomena:91

article: Solar phenomena

evidence: Luminosity decreases caused by sunspots (generally < - 0.3%) are correlated with increases (generally < + 0.05%) caused both by faculae that are associated with active regions as well as the magnetically active 'bright network'.

article: Sun

evidence: At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities.

article: Sun

evidence: Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change in solar irradiance, which, in turn, might influence Earth's long-term climate.

article: Sunspot

evidence: Sunspots number is correlated with the intensity of solar radiation over the period since 1979, when satellite measurements became available.

article: Sunspot

evidence: On longer time scales, such as the solar cycle, other magnetic phenomena (faculae and the chromospheric network) correlate with sunspot occurrence.


text: CO2 increase is natural, not human-caused

claim_label: REFUTES

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

evidence_label: REFUTES

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:186

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Human activities have caused CO 2 to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years.

evidence_id: Global warming:59

article: Global warming

evidence: Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:130

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.

article: Sustainability

evidence: In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use.


text: Renewable energy investment kills jobs

article: BP

evidence: It established an alternative and low carbon energy business in 2005, with plans to invest $8 billion over a 10-year period into renewable energy sources including solar, wind, and biofuels, and non-renewable sources including natural gas and hydrogen power.

evidence_id: Green-collar worker:26

article: Green-collar worker

evidence: Some 2.3 million people have found renewable energy jobs in recent years, and projected investments of $630 billion by 2030 would translate into at least 20 million additional jobs.

evidence_id: Renewable energy commercialization:11

article: Renewable energy commercialization

evidence: A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs.

evidence_id: Renewable energy commercialization:16

article: Renewable energy commercialization

evidence: Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States.

evidence_id: Renewable energy:6

article: Renewable energy

evidence: Globally there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.


text: CO2 limits won't cool the planet

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:191

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:266

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Occupational CO 2 exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period.

evidence_id: Gaia hypothesis:44

article: Gaia hypothesis

evidence: As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet.

evidence_id: Global warming:116

article: Global warming

evidence: If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

evidence_id: Global warming:79

article: Global warming

evidence: Globally, these effects are estimated to have led to a slight cooling, dominated by an increase in surface albedo.


text: The Schmittner et al. study finds low probability of both very low and very high climate sensitivities, and its lower estimate (as compared to the IPCC) is based on a new temperature reconstruction of the Last Glacial Maximum that may or may not withstand the test of time.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:83

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: This is the "likely" range (greater than 66% probability), based on the expert judgement of the IPCC's authors.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:58

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:74

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report reverted to the earlier range of 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F) (high confidence) because some estimates using industrial-age data came out low.

evidence_id: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report:69

article: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

evidence: Compared to the previous report, the lower bounds for the sensitivity of the climate system to emissions were slightly lowered, though the projections for global mean temperature rise (compared to pre-industrial levels) by 2100 exceeded 1.5 °C in all scenarios.

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:22

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.


text: Greenland has only lost a tiny fraction of its ice mass

article: Glacier

evidence: The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass.

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:143

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: If iceberg calving has happened as an average, Greenland lost 294 Gt of its mass during 2007 (one km3 of ice weighs about 0.9 Gt).

article: Greenland

evidence: Findings show that Greenland has lost 3.8 trillion tonnes of ice since 1992, enough to raise sea levels by almost 11mm (1.06cm).

article: Greenland

evidence: "Greenland Glaciers Losing Ice Much Faster, Study Says".

evidence_id: Retreat of glaciers since 1850:286

article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850

evidence: Between then and 2010, the mountain lost 80 percent of its ice — two-thirds of which since another scientific expedition in the 1970s.


text: Ben Santer rewrote the 1995 IPCC report

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:822

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: In fact, one site said that it was proven in 1996 that Santer had fraudulently altered the IPCC report.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:707

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:109

evidence: The IPCC First Assessment Report (FAR) was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the UNFCCC.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:118

evidence: Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:74

evidence: The IPCC published its First Assessment Report (FAR) in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a Second Assessment Report (SAR) in 1995, a Third Assessment Report (TAR) in 2001, a Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) in 2007 and a Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014.


text: Royal Society embraces skepticism

claim_label: SUPPORTS

evidence_id: Philosophical skepticism:0

evidence_label: SUPPORTS

article: Philosophical skepticism

evidence: Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling: scepticism; from Greek σκέψις skepsis, "inquiry") is a philosophical school of thought that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge.

article: Skepticism

evidence: Skepticism (American English) or scepticism (British English, Australian English, and Canadian English) is generally a questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief or dogma.

article: Skepticism

evidence: In India the Ajñana school of philosophy espoused skepticism.

article: Skepticism

evidence: In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.

article: Skepticism

evidence: In ordinary usage, skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) (Greek: 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to search, to think about or look for; see also spelling differences) can refer to: an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object; the doctrine that true knowledge or some particular knowledge is uncertain; the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).


text: IPCC graph showing accelerating trends is misleading

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:220

evidence: A potentially important area for consideration is also the detection of trends in extreme events and the attribution of these trends to human influence.

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:267

evidence: The IPCC needs to look at this trend in the errors and ask why it happened".

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:277

evidence: These studies were widely presented as demonstrating that the current warming period is exceptional in comparison to temperatures between 1000 and 1900, and the MBH99 based graph featured in publicity.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:2

article: Sea level rise

evidence: More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveal an accelerating rise of 7.5 cm (3.0 in) from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly 30 cm (12 in) per century.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:46

evidence: This was the basis of a "schematic diagram" featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global.


text: Climate change isn't increasing extreme weather damage costs

evidence_id: Climate change in the United States:45

article: Climate change in the United States

evidence: Human-induced climate change has, e.g., the potential to alter the prevalence and severity of extreme weathers such as heat waves, cold waves, storms, floods and droughts.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:162

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: For example, developed countries will be negatively affected by increases in the severity and frequency of some extreme weather events, such as heat waves.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:259

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Global losses reveal rapidly rising costs due to extreme weather-related events since the 1970s.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:334

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: For example, humans living on atoll islands face risks due to sea level rise, sea surface warming, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.

evidence_id: Heat wave:54

article: Heat wave

evidence: Global warming boosts the probability of extreme weather events, like heat waves, far more than it boosts more moderate events.


text: UAH atmospheric temperatures prove climate models and/or surface temperature data sets are wrong

evidence_id: John Christy:40

article: John Christy

evidence: We have found that climate models and popular surface temperature data sets overstate the changes in the real atmosphere and that actual changes are not alarming."

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:111

evidence: Globally, most climate models used by the IPCC in preparation of their third assessment in 2007 show a slightly greater warming at the TLT level than at the surface (0.03 °C/decade difference) for 1979–1999 while the GISS trend is +0.161 °C/decade for 1979 to 2012, the lower troposphere trends calculated from satellite data by UAH and RSS are +0.130 °C/decade and +0.206 °C/decade.

evidence_id: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements:53

evidence: The results are thus not precisely comparable to surface temperature models.

evidence_id: UAH satellite temperature dataset:27

article: UAH satellite temperature dataset

evidence: In comparing these measurements to surface temperature models, it is important to note that values for the lower troposphere measurements taken by the MSU are a weighted average of temperatures over multiple altitudes (roughly 0 to 12 km), and not a surface temperature (as seen in figure above).

evidence_id: UAH satellite temperature dataset:28

article: UAH satellite temperature dataset

evidence: The results are thus not precisely comparable to surface temperature records or models.


text: We didn't have global warming during the Industrial Revolution

claim_label: DISPUTED

evidence_id: 20th century:6

article: 20th century

evidence: The average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since 1880; Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15-0.20 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:19

article: Global warming

evidence: Climate proxy records show that natural variations offset the early effects of the Industrial Revolution, so there was little net warming between the 18th century and the mid-19th century, when thermometer records began to provide global coverage.

evidence_id: Global warming:55

article: Global warming

evidence: Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.

evidence_id: Global warming:59

article: Global warming

evidence: Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:713

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human activities resulting from the industrial revolution have changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere....Deforestation is now the second largest contributor to global warming, after the burning of fossil fuels.


text: Loehle and Scafetta find a 60 year cycle causing global warming

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:84

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: A study published in January 2015 proposed that the hiatus resulted from a 60-year oscillatory pattern of natural variability ssociated with the AMO and PDO, interacting with a secular warming trend due mainly to human caused increases in greenhouse gas levels.

evidence_id: Global warming hiatus:91

article: Global warming hiatus

evidence: The 60- to 80-year cycle of the atmospheric and oceanic variability over the North Atlantic was also linked to the hiatus by two studies published in 2013 and was used to infer the length of the hiatus.

evidence_id: Global warming:44

article: Global warming

evidence: By itself, the climate system experiences various cycles which can last for years (such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation) to decades or centuries.

evidence_id: Nicola Scafetta:32

article: Nicola Scafetta

evidence: In a 2011 article published in The Open Atmospheric Science Journal ecologist Craig Loehle of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement (a forest industry institution) and Scafetta forecast that the world climate "may remain approximately steady until 2030-2040, and may at most warm 0.5-1.0°C by 2100 at the estimated 0.66°C/century anthropogenic warming rate".

evidence_id: Nicola Scafetta:68

article: Nicola Scafetta

evidence: "Hotter sun may affect global warming".


text: Humans survived past climate changes

evidence_id: Holocene extinction:121

article: Holocene extinction

evidence: One of the main theories to the extinction is climate change.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:573

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: Past Climate Variability in South America and Surrounding Regions.

evidence_id: Little Ice Age:627

article: Little Ice Age

evidence: "Causes of Climate Change over the Past 1000 Years".

article: Paleolithic

evidence: This epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies.

evidence_id: Quaternary extinction event:1893

article: Quaternary extinction event

evidence: "The character of late-glacial and post-glacial climatic changes".


text: We have had ice ages and warmer periods when alligators were found in Spitzbergen.

evidence_id: Ice age:0

article: Ice age

evidence: An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers.

evidence_id: Ice age:1

article: Ice age

evidence: Earth's climate alternates between ice ages and greenhouse periods, during which there are no glaciers on the planet.

evidence_id: Ice age:102

article: Ice age

evidence: The colder periods are called glacial periods, the warmer periods interglacials, such as the Eemian Stage.

evidence_id: Ice age:220

article: Ice age

evidence: The current geological period, the Quaternary, which began about 2.6 million years ago and extends into the present, is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age) lasting about 100,000 years, and which are then interrupted by the warmer interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years.

article: Miocene

evidence: Climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued.


text: Scientific analysis of past climates shows that greenhouse gasses, principally CO2, have controlled most ancient climate changes.

article: Climatology

evidence: Most climate models include the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.

article: Eocene

evidence: Greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature.

evidence_id: Global warming:52

article: Global warming

evidence: Scientists have determined that the major factors causing the current climate change are greenhouse gases, land use changes, and aerosols and soot.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: The opposite effect is volcanism, responsible for the natural greenhouse effect, by emitting CO2 into the atmosphere, thus affecting glaciation (Ice Age) cycles.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation, specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery and current global warming.


text: This makes it clear that this time around humans are the cause, mainly by our CO2 emissions.

evidence_id: Air pollution:22

article: Air pollution

evidence: Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: Carbon dioxide (CO 2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant".

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:64

article: Global warming

evidence: Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010 were equivalent to 49 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (using the most recent global warming potentials over 100 years from the AR5 report).

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:130

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:5

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human activities (primarily greenhouse gas emissions) are the primary cause.


text: The data suggests solar activity is influencing the global climate causing the world to get warmer."

evidence_id: 21st century:490

article: 21st century

evidence: Climate scientists have reached a consensus that the earth is undergoing significant anthropogenic (human-induced) global warming.

article: Climate

evidence: Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling.

evidence_id: Cosmic ray:213

article: Cosmic ray

evidence: Danish physicist Henrik Svensmark has controversially argued that because solar variation modulates the cosmic ray flux on Earth, they would consequently affect the rate of cloud formation and hence be an indirect cause of global warming.

evidence_id: El Niño–Southern Oscillation:116

article: El Niño–Southern Oscillation

evidence: The studies of historical data show the recent El Niño variation is most likely linked to global warming.

article: Global warming


text: In the last 35 years of global warming, the sun has shown a slight cooling trend.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:366

article: Global warming

evidence: The period from 1983 to 2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years in the Northern Hemisphere, where such assessment is possible (medium confidence).

evidence_id: Global warming:79

article: Global warming

evidence: Globally, these effects are estimated to have led to a slight cooling, dominated by an increase in surface albedo.

evidence_id: Quaternary glaciation:124

article: Quaternary glaciation

evidence: Based on orbital models, the cooling trend initiated about 6,000 years ago will continue for another 23,000 years.

evidence_id: Solar activity and climate:16

article: Solar activity and climate

evidence: In the three decades following 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence.


text: The consequences of climate change become increasingly bad after each additional degree of warming, with the consequences of 2°C being quite damaging and the consequences of 4°C being potentially catastrophic.

evidence_id: Climate change mitigation:371

article: Climate change mitigation

evidence: For example, limiting global warming to 1.5 °C relative to pre-industrial levels reduces climate change damages more than a 2 °C limit.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:0

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: The effects of global warming or climate damage include far-reaching and long-lasting changes to the natural environment, to ecosystems and human societies caused directly or indirectly by human emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:16

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: It is a major aspect of climate change, and has been demonstrated by the instrumental temperature record which shows global warming of around 1 °C since the pre-industrial period, although the bulk of this (0.9°C) has occurred since 1970.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:257

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: Researchers have warned that current economic modeling may seriously underestimate the impact of potentially catastrophic climate change and point to the need for new models that give a more accurate picture of potential damages.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:293

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: For increases in global average temperature exceeding 1.5 to 2.5 °C (relative to global temperatures over the years 1980–1999) and in concomitant atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, projected changes in ecosystems will have predominantly negative consequences for biodiversity and ecosystems goods and services, e.g., water and food supply.


text: The Petition Project features over 31,000 scientists signing the petition stating "There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide will, in the forseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere ...".

evidence_id: Climate change denial:221

article: Climate change denial

evidence: There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate.

evidence_id: Global warming:281

article: Global warming

evidence: In November 2017, a second warning to humanity signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries stated that "the current trajectory of potentially catastrophic climate change due to rising greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural production – particularly from farming ruminants for meat consumption" is "especially troubling".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:175

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Evidence from the geological record is consistent with the physics that shows that adding large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere warms the world and may lead to: higher sea levels and flooding of low-lying coasts; greatly changed patterns of rainfall; increased acidity of the oceans; and decreased oxygen levels in seawater.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:543

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: 7–10 "There is now convincing evidence that since the industrial revolution, human activities, resulting in increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases have become a major agent of climate change.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:77

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.


text: That humans are causing global warming is the position of the Academies of Science from 80 countries plus many scientific organizations that study climate science.

evidence_id: Global warming:130

article: Global warming

evidence: There are more than two dozen scientific institutions that develop climate models.

evidence_id: Global warming:8

article: Global warming

evidence: These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:144

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS) in 2007, issued a Statement on Environment and Sustainable Growth: As reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human-produced emission of greenhouse gases and this warming will continue unabated if present anthropogenic emissions continue or, worse, expand without control.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:171

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Geological Society of America (GSA) concurs with assessments by the National Academies of Science (2005), the National Research Council (2006), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that global climate has warmed and that human activities (mainly greenhouse‐gas emissions) account for most of the warming since the middle 1900s.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:89

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Since 2001, 34 national science academies, three regional academies, and both the international InterAcademy Council and International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences have made formal declarations confirming human induced global warming and urging nations to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.


text: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Nearly all publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 3% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:282

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: 76 out of 79 climatologists who "listed climate science as their area of expertise and who also have published more than 50% of their recent peer-reviewed papers on the subject of climate change" believed that mean global temperatures had risen compared to pre-1800s levels.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:287

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: A 2010 paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States (PNAS) reviewed publication and citation data for 1,372 climate researchers and drew the following two conclusions: (i) 97–98% of the climate researchers most actively publishing in the field support the tenets of ACC (Anthropogenic Climate Change) outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and (ii) the relative climate expertise and scientific prominence of the researchers unconvinced of ACC are substantially below that of the convinced researchers.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:294

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Over 99.99% of climate scientists did not reject AGW in their peer-reviewed research.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:326

article: Scientific consensus on climate change


text: All the indicators show that global warming is still happening.

evidence_id: Global warming:155

article: Global warming

evidence: Many regions have probably already seen increases in warm spells and heat waves, and it is virtually certain that these changes will continue over the 21st century.

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

evidence_id: Global warming:36

article: Global warming

evidence: Arctic temperatures have increased and are predicted to continue to increase during this century at over twice the rate of the rest of the world.

evidence_id: Global warming:67

article: Global warming

evidence: The 10th Emissions Gap Report issued by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that if emissions continue to increase at the same rate as they have in 2010–2020, global temperatures would rise by as much as 4° by 2100.

evidence_id: Global warming:79

article: Global warming

evidence: Globally, these effects are estimated to have led to a slight cooling, dominated by an increase in surface albedo.


text: "In fact global warming has stopped and a cooling is beginning.

evidence_id: Global warming:101

article: Global warming

evidence: According to basic physical principles, the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere).

evidence_id: Global warming:106

article: Global warming

evidence: The main balancing feedback to global temperature change is radiative cooling to space as infrared radiation, which increases strongly with increasing temperature.

evidence_id: Global warming:172

article: Global warming

evidence: This could trigger cooling in the North Atlantic, Europe, and North America.

evidence_id: Ice age:178

article: Ice age

evidence: The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the Pleistocene Ice Age.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:340

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, which caused approximately 1 kelvin of global cooling for 2 years due to sulfate emissions.


text: No climate model has predicted a cooling of the Earth – quite the  contrary.

article: Eocene

evidence: The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles.

evidence_id: Global warming:0

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.

evidence_id: Ice age:51

article: Ice age

evidence: Most contemporary scientists thought that the Earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:13

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: The severity of this cooling in Alan Robock's model suggests that the cumulative products of 100 of these firestorms could cool the global climate by approximately 1 °C (1.8 °F), largely eliminating the magnitude of anthropogenic global warming for the next roughly two or three years.

evidence_id: Nuclear winter:155

article: Nuclear winter

evidence: The smoke resulting would be largely opaque to solar radiation but transparent to infrared, thus cooling the Earth by blocking sunlight, but not creating warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect.


text: Empirical measurements of the Earth's heat content show the planet is still accumulating heat and global warming is still happening.

article: Earth

evidence: "Evidence is now 'unequivocal' that humans are causing global warming – UN report".

article: Earth

evidence: This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.

evidence_id: Global warming:31

article: Global warming

evidence: Since the pre-industrial period, global average land temperatures have increased almost twice as fast as global average temperatures.

evidence_id: Global warming:463

article: Global warming

evidence: This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:5

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets.


text: Surface temperatures can show short-term cooling when heat is exchanged between the atmosphere and the ocean, which has a much greater heat capacity than the air.

article: Convection

evidence: Longitudinal circulation, on the other hand, comes about because the ocean has a higher specific heat capacity than land (and also thermal conductivity, allowing the heat to penetrate further beneath the surface ) and thereby absorbs and releases more heat, but the temperature changes less than land.

evidence_id: Global warming:32

article: Global warming

evidence: This is due to the larger heat capacity of oceans and because oceans lose more heat by evaporation.

evidence_id: Global warming:94

article: Global warming

evidence: When soot is suspended in the atmosphere, it directly absorbs solar radiation, heating the atmosphere and cooling the surface.

evidence_id: Tropical cyclone:133

article: Tropical cyclone

evidence: This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters.

evidence_id: Tropical cyclone:74

article: Tropical cyclone

evidence: latent heat) at the temperature of the warm ocean surface (during evaporation, the ocean cools and the air warms).


text: "[Models] are full of fudge factors that are fitted to the existing climate, so the models more or less agree with the observed data.

article: Astronomy

evidence: In the case of an inconsistency between the data and model's results, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model so that it produces results that fit the data.

evidence_id: Mathematical model:106

article: Mathematical model

evidence: As the purpose of modeling is to increase our understanding of the world, the validity of a model rests not only on its fit to empirical observations, but also on its ability to extrapolate to situations or data beyond those originally described in the model.

evidence_id: Models of scientific inquiry:172

article: Models of scientific inquiry

evidence: The idea of 'too baroque' is connected to 'simplicity': "a theory jammed with fudge factors is not very elegant.

evidence_id: Models of scientific inquiry:28

article: Models of scientific inquiry

evidence: A good theory: Is elegant (Formal elegance; no ad hoc modifications) Contains few arbitrary or adjustable elements (simplicity/parsimony) Agrees with and explains all existing observations (unificatory/explanatory power) Makes detailed predictions about future observations that can disprove or falsify the model if they are not borne out.

evidence_id: Scientific modelling:64

article: Scientific modelling

evidence: However, a fit to empirical data alone is not sufficient for a model to be accepted as valid.


text: While there are uncertainties with climate models, they successfully reproduce the past and have made predictions that have been subsequently confirmed by observations.

evidence_id: General circulation model:38

article: General circulation model

evidence: These models are the basis for model predictions of future climate, such as are discussed by the IPCC.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:424

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies which had subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records, while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods.

evidence_id: Ozone depletion:275

article: Ozone depletion

evidence: Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere.

article: Science

evidence: Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.

article: Science

evidence: This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.


text: The warming trend is the same in rural and urban areas, measured by thermometers and satellites, and by natural thermometers.

article: Climatology

evidence: Scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from Earth observing satellites and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of thermometers, to prehistoric ice extracted from glaciers.

evidence_id: Global warming:95

article: Global warming

evidence: In areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:311

article: Urban heat island

evidence: For example, urban and rural trends are very similar.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:320

article: Urban heat island

evidence: This was done by using satellite-based night-light detection of urban areas, and more thorough homogenisation of the time series (with corrections, for example, for the tendency of surrounding rural stations to be slightly higher in elevation, and thus cooler, than urban areas).

article: Urbanization

evidence: For North America and Europe, such practice could reduce earth warming trends.


text: "We found [U.S. weather] stations located next to  the exhaust fans of air conditioning units, surrounded by asphalt  parking lots and roads, on blistering-hot rooftops, and near sidewalks  and buildings that absorb and radiate heat.

evidence_id: Cooling tower:15

article: Cooling tower

evidence: These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, supplied with air by fans or relying on natural airflow.

evidence_id: Cooling tower:6

article: Cooling tower

evidence: Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning.

evidence_id: Grissom Air Reserve Base:146

article: Grissom Air Reserve Base

evidence: All flight operations were controlled from an air conditioned observation room in the control tower of this building, which had windows overlooking the runway and landing mat areas.

evidence_id: Grissom Air Reserve Base:167

article: Grissom Air Reserve Base

evidence: The building contained Bink's Paint Spraying and Air Washing Equipment, including blowers, air washing and purifying devices, and exhaust fans, installed to minimize danger of explosions and inhalation of fumes.

evidence_id: Palo Alto, California:273

article: Palo Alto, California

evidence: A third, the Stanford station, located beside Alma Street at Embarcadero Road, is used for occasional sports events (generally football) at Stanford Stadium.


text: We found 68 stations located  at wastewater treatment plants, where the process of waste digestion  causes temperatures to be higher than in surrounding areas.

evidence_id: Anaerobic digestion:122

article: Anaerobic digestion

evidence: Some European countries require a degree of elevated heat treatment to kill harmful bacteria in the input waste.

evidence_id: Anaerobic digestion:291

article: Anaerobic digestion

evidence: Today, anaerobic digesters are commonly found alongside farms to reduce nitrogen run-off from manure, or wastewater treatment facilities to reduce the costs of sludge disposal.

evidence_id: Anaerobic digestion:72

article: Anaerobic digestion

evidence: Thermophilic digestion takes place optimally around 49 to 57 °C, or at elevated temperatures up to 70 °C, where thermophiles are the primary microorganisms present.

evidence_id: Sewage sludge treatment:47

article: Sewage sludge treatment

evidence: Many larger sites utilize the biogas for combined heat and power, using the cooling water from the generators to maintain the temperature of the digestion plant at the required 35 ± 3 °C.

evidence_id: Sewage sludge:7

article: Sewage sludge

evidence: In some treatment plants an Imhoff tank is used where sludge settles through a slot to the lower story or digestion chamber where it is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria, resulting in liquefaction and reduced volume of the sludge.


text: Numerous studies into the effect of urban heat island effect and microsite influences find they have negligible effect on long-term trends, particularly when averaged over large regions.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:103

article: Urban heat island

evidence: On the other hand, one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:106

article: Urban heat island

evidence: Several studies have revealed increases in the severity of the effect of heat islands with the progress of climate change.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:13

article: Urban heat island

evidence: While some lines of research did not detect a significant impact, other studies have concluded that heat islands can have measurable effects on climate phenomena at the global scale.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:310

article: Urban heat island

evidence: While the "heat island" warming is an important local effect, there is no evidence that it biases trends in the homogenized historical temperature record.

evidence_id: Urban heat island:337

article: Urban heat island

evidence: Studies that have looked at hemispheric and global scales conclude that any urban-related trend is an order of magnitude smaller than decadal and longer time-scale trends evident in the series (e.g., Jones et al., 1990; Peterson et al., 1999).


text: The increase in temperatures since 1975 is a consistent feature of all reconstructions.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:0

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: In the hockey stick controversy, the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:1

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries, and the name "hockey stick graph" was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures.

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:0

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records.

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:1

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century, with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures.

evidence_id: Hockey stick graph:259

article: Hockey stick graph

evidence: published on 10 February 2005 used a wavelet transform technique to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere temperatures over the last 2,000 years, combining low-resolution proxy data such as lake and ocean sediments for century-scale or longer changes, with tree ring proxies only used for annual to decadal resolution.


text: Natural temperature measurements also confirm the general accuracy of the instrumental temperature record.

evidence_id: Global warming:28

article: Global warming

evidence: The warming evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, documented by many independent scientific groups; for example, in most continental regions the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation has increased.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:106

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: Another study concluded in 2006, that existing empirical techniques for validating the local and regional consistency of temperature data are adequate to identify and remove biases from station records, and that such corrections allow information about long-term trends to be preserved.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:112

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: These datasets are updated frequently, and are generally in close agreement.

evidence_id: Instrumental temperature record:60

article: Instrumental temperature record

evidence: The temperature data for the record come from measurements from land stations and ships.

evidence_id: Temperature record of the past 1000 years:5

evidence: Individual proxy records, such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology, are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap.


text: A large number of ancient mass extinction events have been strongly linked to global climate change.

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: Other causal or contributing factors to the extinction may have been the Deccan Traps and other volcanic eruptions, climate change, and sea level change.

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: "End-Cretaceous extinction in Antarctica linked to both Deccan volcanism and meteorite impact via climate change".

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: The regression would also have caused climate changes, partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by reducing the Earth's albedo and increasing global temperatures.

article: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

evidence: Species extinction at Seymour Island occurred in two pulses that coincide with the two observed warming events, directly linking the end-Cretaceous extinction at this site to both volcanic and meteorite events via climate change.

evidence_id: Quaternary extinction event:5

article: Quaternary extinction event

evidence: Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are overkill by the widespread appearance of humans and natural climate change.


text: Because current climate change is so rapid, the way species typically adapt (eg - migration) is, in most cases, simply not be possible.

article: Biodiversity

evidence: Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

article: Extinction

evidence: "Predicting patterns of long-term adaptation and extinction with population genetics".

article: Extinction

evidence: Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) reduces the range of adaptions possible.

evidence_id: Invasive species:276

article: Invasive species

evidence: Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time.

article: Nature

evidence: The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space.


text: Every part of the Earth's climate system has continued warming since 1998, with 2015 shattering temperature records.

evidence_id: Global warming:0

article: Global warming

evidence: Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.

evidence_id: Global warming:21

article: Global warming

evidence: Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

evidence_id: Global warming:41

article: Global warming

evidence: An example of such an episode is the slower rate of surface temperature increase from 1998 to 2012, which was dubbed the global warming hiatus.

evidence_id: Global warming:42

article: Global warming

evidence: Throughout this period ocean heat storage continued to progress steadily upwards, and in subsequent years surface temperatures have spiked upwards.

evidence_id: Greenland ice sheet:263

article: Greenland ice sheet

evidence: "NASA, NOAA Analyses Reveal Record-Shattering Global Warm Temperatures in 2015".


text: but Antarctica is losing land ice at an accelerating rate, which has implications for sea level rise.

article: Antarctica

evidence: It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global cooling.

article: Antarctica

evidence: However, it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level.

article: Antarctica

evidence: If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 60 m (200 ft).

evidence_id: Sea level rise:188

article: Sea level rise

evidence: Warming beyond the 2 °C (3.6 °F) target potentially lead to rates of sea-level rise dominated by ice loss from Antarctica.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:65

article: Sea level rise

evidence: However scientists have found that ice is being lost, and at an accelerating rate.


text: [Ice] is expanding in much of Antarctica, contrary to the widespread public belief that global warming is melting the continental ice cap.

evidence_id: Antarctic ice sheet:6

article: Antarctic ice sheet

evidence: In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice, sea ice around Antarctica has been expanding as of 2013[update].

article: Antarctica

evidence: As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert.

article: Antarctica

evidence: Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer.

article: Antarctica

evidence: The amount of surface warming in West Antarctica, while large, has not led to appreciable melting at the surface, and is not directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level.

evidence_id: Global warming:27

article: Global warming

evidence: The remainder of the additional energy has melted ice and warmed the continents and the atmosphere.


text: The majority of peer reviewed research at the time predicted warming due to increasing CO2.

evidence_id: Global cooling:413

article: Global cooling

evidence: A survey of peer-reviewed scientific papers published between 1965 and 1979 shows that the large majority of research at the time predicted that the earth would warm as carbon-dioxide levels rose — as indeed it has."

evidence_id: Global cooling:55

article: Global cooling

evidence: The 1970 Study of Critical Environmental Problems reported the possibility of warming from increased carbon dioxide, but no concerns about cooling, setting a lower bound on the beginning of interest in "global cooling".

evidence_id: Global cooling:99

article: Global cooling

evidence: Academic analysis of the peer-reviewed studies published at that time shows that most papers examining aspects of climate during the 1970s were either neutral or showed a warming trend.

evidence_id: Global warming:328

article: Global warming

evidence: This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in The Hammond Times which described Roger Revelle's research into the effects of increasing human-caused CO 2 emissions on the greenhouse effect: "a large scale global warming, with radical climate changes may result".

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:459

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.


text: "An article in Science magazine illustrated that a rise in carbon dioxide did not precede a rise in temperatures, but actually lagged behind temperature rises by 200 to 1000 years.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:128

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: In 2019 a paper published in the journal Science found the oceans are heating 40% faster than the IPCC predicted just five years before.

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:132

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Studies of the Vostok ice core show that at the "beginning of the deglaciations, the CO 2 increase either was in phase or lagged by less than ~1000 years with respect to the Antarctic temperature, whereas it clearly lagged behind the temperature at the onset of the glaciations".

evidence_id: Global warming controversy:133

article: Global warming controversy

evidence: Recent warming is followed by carbon dioxide levels with only a 5 months delay.

evidence_id: Global warming:396

article: Global warming

evidence: Temperatures rose by 0.0 °C–0.2 °C from 1720–1800 to 1850–1900 (Hawkins et al., 2017).

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:655

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: Carbon dioxide concentrations were relatively stable for the past 10,000 years but then began to increase rapidly about 150 years ago…as a result of fossil fuel consumption and land use change.


text: When the Earth comes out of an ice age, the warming is not initiated by CO2 but by changes in the Earth's orbit.

evidence_id: Global cooling:20

article: Global cooling

evidence: Orbital forcing refers to the slow, cyclical changes in the tilt of Earth's axis and shape of its orbit.

evidence_id: Ice age:137

article: Ice age

evidence: The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.

evidence_id: Ice age:182

article: Ice age

evidence: The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

evidence_id: Ice age:193

article: Ice age

evidence: In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbital inclination.

evidence_id: Ice age:24

article: Ice age

evidence: He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit.


text: The warming causes the oceans to release CO2.

evidence_id: Anoxic event:65

article: Anoxic event

evidence: The trigger for these mass extinctions appears to be a warming of the ocean caused by a rise of carbon dioxide levels to about 1000 parts per million.

evidence_id: Anoxic event:92

article: Anoxic event

evidence: The effect of this warm water propagates through the ocean, and reduces the amount of CO 2 that the oceans can hold in solution, which makes the oceans release large quantities of CO 2 into the atmosphere in a geologically short time (tens or thousands of years).

evidence_id: Global warming:125

article: Global warming

evidence: As more CO2 and heat are absorbed by the ocean, it is acidifying and ocean circulation can change, changing the rate at which the ocean can absorb atmospheric carbon.

evidence_id: Global warming:153

article: Global warming

evidence: Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in dissolved CO2, which causes ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Global warming:559

article: Global warming

evidence: These feedbacks can change the role of the oceans in taking up atmospheric CO 2 making it very difficult to predict how the ocean carbon cycle will operate in the future.


text: The CO2 amplifies the warming and mixes through the atmosphere, spreading warming throughout the planet.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:63

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:190

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Absorption of infrared light at the vibrational frequencies of atmospheric carbon dioxide traps energy near the surface, warming the surface and the lower atmosphere.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:192

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

evidence_id: Greenhouse effect:0

article: Greenhouse effect

evidence: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:181

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming.


text: So CO2 causes warming AND rising temperature causes CO2 rise.

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:194

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Not only do increasing carbon dioxide concentrations lead to increases in global surface temperature, but increasing global temperatures also cause increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:16

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The higher CO2 levels led to an additional climate warming ranging between 0.1° and 1.5 °C.

evidence_id: Global warming:218

article: Global warming

evidence: CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:310

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.


text: Overall, about 90% of the global warming occurs after the CO2 increase.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:21

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:60

article: Global warming

evidence: As of 2011, the concentrations of CO2 and methane had increased by about 40% and 150%, respectively, since pre-industrial times.

evidence_id: Global warming:64

article: Global warming

evidence: Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010 were equivalent to 49 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (using the most recent global warming potentials over 100 years from the AR5 report).

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:244

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.


text: "His [Dr Spencer's] latest research demonstrates that – in the short term, at any rate –  the temperature feedbacks that the IPCC imagines will greatly amplify  any initial warming caused by CO2 are net-negative, attenuating the  warming they are supposed to enhance.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:0

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing, and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:132

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Water vapor feedback is strongly positive, with most evidence supporting a magnitude of 1.5 to 2.0 W/m2/K, sufficient to roughly double the warming that would otherwise occur.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:152

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: Both theory and climate models indicate that global warming will reduce the rate of temperature decrease with height, producing a negative lapse rate feedback that weakens the greenhouse effect.

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:38

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: It said that Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems.


text: His best estimate is that the  warming in response to a doubling of CO2 concentration, which may happen  this century unless the usual suspects get away with shutting down the  economies of the West, will be a harmless 1 Fahrenheit degree, not the 6  F predicted by the IPCC."

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:13

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Without feedbacks the radiative forcing of approximately 3.7 W/m2, due to doubling CO 2 from the pre-industrial 280 ppm, would eventually result in roughly 1 °C global warming.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:53

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO 2 was doubled.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:66

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The 1990 IPCC First Assessment Report estimated that equilibrium climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO 2 lay between 1.5 and 4.5 °C (2.7 and 8.1 °F), with a "best guess in the light of current knowledge" of 2.5 °C (4.5 °F).

evidence_id: IPCC Third Assessment Report:12

article: IPCC Third Assessment Report

evidence: The TAR estimate for the climate sensitivity is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period.

evidence_id: Kyoto Protocol:25

article: Kyoto Protocol

evidence: The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C.


text: Climate sensitivity can be calculated empirically by comparing past temperature change to natural forcings at the time.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:0

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity is the globally averaged temperature change in response to changes in radiative forcing, which can occur, for instance, due to increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:109

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: One way is to use estimates of global radiative forcing and temperature directly.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:41

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Ignoring these factors causes lower estimates of climate sensitivity when using radiative forcing and temperature records from the historical period.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:77

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity can be estimated using observed temperature rise, observed ocean heat uptake, and modeled or observed radiative forcing.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:9

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: Climate sensitivity is typically estimated in three ways; by using observations taken during the industrial age, by using temperature and other data from the Earth's past and by modelling the climate system in computers.


text: Some global warming 'skeptics' argue that the Earth's climate sensitivity is so low that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 will result in a surface temperature change on the order of 1°C or less, and that therefore global warming is nothing to worry about.

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:18

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) refers to the equilibrium change in global mean near-surface air temperature that would result from a sustained doubling of the atmospheric equivalent CO 2 concentration (ΔT2×).

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:51

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The sensitivity of temperature to atmospheric gasses, most notably CO 2, is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

article: Climate sensitivity

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence_id: Climate sensitivity:7

article: Climate sensitivity

evidence: The transient climate response (TCR) is the amount of temperature increase that might occur at the time when CO2 doubles, having increased gradually by 1% each year.


text: And  since the last ice age ended almost exactly 11,500 years ago…" (Ice Age Now)

article: Earth

evidence: The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.

evidence_id: Ice age:221

article: Ice age

evidence: The last cold episode of the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.

evidence_id: Ice age:226

article: Ice age

evidence: During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 45th parallel north.

evidence_id: Ice age:244

article: Ice age

evidence: Accordingly, at glacial times the humid climatic belt that today is situated several latitude degrees further to the S, was shifted much further to the N. Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today.

evidence_id: Ice age:93

article: Ice age

evidence: The earth is currently in an interglacial, and the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.


text: The warming effect from more CO2 greatly outstrips the influence from changes in the Earth's orbit or solar activity, even if solar levels were to drop to Maunder Minimum levels.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:203

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: If the Sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:4

article: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

evidence: CO 2 absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 µm (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode) and consequently is a greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.

evidence_id: Climate change feedback:16

article: Climate change feedback

evidence: The higher CO2 levels led to an additional climate warming ranging between 0.1° and 1.5 °C.

evidence_id: Greenhouse gas:131

article: Greenhouse gas

evidence: Future warming is projected to have a range of impacts, including sea level rise, increased frequencies and severities of some extreme weather events, loss of biodiversity, and regional changes in agricultural productivity.

evidence_id: Ice age:137

article: Ice age

evidence: The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.


text: 'Our harmless emissions of trifling quantities of carbon dioxide cannot possibly acidify the oceans.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:201

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3−) and carbonate (CO32−).

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:211

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Most of the CO 2 taken up by the ocean, which is about 30% of the total released into the atmosphere, forms carbonic acid in equilibrium with bicarbonate.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:22

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:798

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: "Marine calcifiers exhibit mixed responses to CO 2-induced ocean acidification".

evidence_id: Marine pollution:92

article: Marine pollution

evidence: These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.


text: The current debate on the connection between CO2 emissions and climate change has largely overlooked an independent and equally serious problem, the increasing acidity of our oceans.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:204

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the increased uptake of carbon dioxide into the oceans is causing a measurable decrease in the pH of the oceans, which is referred to as ocean acidification.

evidence_id: Carbon dioxide:220

article: Carbon dioxide

evidence: Also, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) writes in their Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: "The uptake of anthropogenic carbon since 1750 has led to the ocean becoming more acidic with an average decrease in pH of 0.1 units.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:0

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the atmosphere.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:160

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: This will cause an elevation of ocean alkalinity, leading to the enhancement of the ocean as a reservoir for CO 2 with implications for climate change as more CO 2 leaves the atmosphere for the ocean.

evidence_id: Scientific consensus on climate change:184

article: Scientific consensus on climate change

evidence: They state further that the "continuing reliance on combustion of fossil fuels as the world's primary source of energy will lead to much higher atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, which will, in turn, cause significant increases in surface temperature, sea level, ocean acidification, and their related consequences to the environment and society".


text: Last December, the respected  journal “Oceanography” published projections (see graphic below) for this rising acidity, measured by falling pH

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:194

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Limiting global warming to below 2 °C would imply a reduction in surface ocean pH of 0.16 from pre-industrial levels.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:29

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: It is expected to drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 pH units (an additional doubling to tripling of today's post-industrial acid concentrations) by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic CO 2, the impacts being most severe for coral reefs and the Southern Ocean.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:445

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: "Dynamic patterns and ecological impacts of declining ocean pH in a high-resolution multi-year dataset".

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:5

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: Between 1751 and 1996, surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14, representing an increase of almost 30% in H+ ion concentration in the world's oceans.

evidence_id: Ocean acidification:509

article: Ocean acidification

evidence: "Rising levels of acids in seas may endanger marine life, says study".


text: Since the hockey stick paper in 1998, there have been a number of proxy studies analysing a variety of different sources including corals, stalagmites, tree rings, boreholes and ice cores.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:73

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: For his postdoctoral research, Mann joined Bradley and tree ring specialist Malcolm K. Hughes to develop a new statistical approach to reconstruct underlying spatial patterns of temperature variation combining diverse datasets of proxy information covering different periods across the globe, including a rich resource of tree ring networks for some areas and sparser proxies such as lake sediments, ice cores and corals, as well as some historical records.

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:87

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: The Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 (MBH98) multiproxy study on "Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries" was submitted to the journal Nature on 9 May 1997, accepted on 27 February 1998 and published on 23 April 1998.

article: Paleoclimatology

evidence: Paleoclimatology uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within rocks, sediments, boreholes, ice sheets, tree rings, corals, shells, and microfossils.

evidence_id: Proxy (climate):2

article: Proxy (climate)

evidence: Examples of proxies include ice cores, tree rings, sub-fossil pollen, boreholes, corals, lake and ocean sediments, and carbonate speleothems.

evidence_id: Proxy (climate):86

article: Proxy (climate)

evidence: Several studies, including and have compiled box and gravity cores in the North Pacific analyzing them for palynological content to determine the distribution of dinocysts and their relationships with sea surface temperature, salinity, productivity and upwelling.


text: They all confirm the original hockey stick conclusion: the 20th century is the warmest in the last 1000 years and that warming was most dramatic after 1920.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:17

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: A wide variety of temperature proxies together prove that the 20th century was the hottest recorded in the last 2,000 years.

evidence_id: Global warming:21

article: Global warming

evidence: Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

evidence_id: Global warming:366

article: Global warming

evidence: The period from 1983 to 2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years in the Northern Hemisphere, where such assessment is possible (medium confidence).

evidence_id: Hockey stick controversy:154

article: Hockey stick controversy

evidence: They concluded that although the 20th century was almost certainly the warmest of the millennium, the amount of anthropogenic warming remains uncertain."

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

evidence: They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.


text: A number of independent investigations from different countries, universities and government bodies have investigated the stolen emails and found no evidence of wrong doing.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:244

evidence: The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) of the National Science Foundation closed an investigation on 15 August 2011 that exonerated Michael Mann of Pennsylvania State University of charges of scientific misconduct.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:247

evidence: The OIP findings confirmed the university panel's conclusions which cleared Mann of any wrongdoing, and it stated "Lacking any evidence of research misconduct, as defined under the NSF Research Misconduct Regulation, we are closing the investigation with no further action."

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:7

evidence: Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports, finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct.

article: Nepal

evidence: The Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority is an independent investigative agency that investigates and prosecutes cases related to corruption and bribery, in addition to the abuse of authority by government officials and officeholders.

evidence_id: Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections:197

evidence: By January 2017, a multi-agency investigation, conducted by the FBI, the CIA, the NSA, the Justice Department, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network and representatives of the DNI, was underway looking into how the Russian government may have secretly financed efforts to help Trump win the election had been conducted over several months by six federal agencies.


text: Focusing on a few suggestive emails, taken out of context, merely serves to distract from the wealth of empirical evidence for man-made global warming.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:126

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Despite leaked emails during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy, as well as multinational, independent research on the topic, no evidence of such a conspiracy has been presented, and strong consensus exists among scientists from a multitude of political, social, organizational and national backgrounds about the extent and cause of climate change.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:192

article: Climate change denial

evidence: The efforts of Al Gore and other environmental campaigns have focused on the effects of global warming and have managed to increase awareness and concern, but despite these efforts, the number of Americans believing humans are the cause of global warming was holding steady at 61% in 2007, and those believing the popular media was understating the issue remained about 35%.

evidence_id: Climate change denial:693

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Most of the few statements that critics claim as evidence of malfeasance seem to have more innocent explanations that make sense in the context of scientists conversing privately and informally."

evidence_id: Climate change denial:788

article: Climate change denial

evidence: Science education is under attack… by climate change deniers, who ignore a mountain of evidence gathered over the last fifty years that the planet is warming and that humans are largely responsible.

evidence_id: Global warming:28

article: Global warming

evidence: The warming evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, documented by many independent scientific groups; for example, in most continental regions the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation has increased.


text: “[T]he 1079 emails and 72 documents seem indeed evidence of a scandal  involving most of the most prominent scientists pushing the man-made  warming theory - a scandal that is one of the greatest in modern  science.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:278

evidence: Writing for Newsweek, journalist Sharon Begley called the controversy a "highly orchestrated, manufactured scandal", noting that the public was unlikely to change their mind.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:286

evidence: He said that it was not a single scandal, but "a sustained and coordinated campaign" aimed at undermining the credibility of the science.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:303

evidence: An editorial in Nature said that many in the media "were led by the nose, by those with a clear agenda, to a sizzling scandal that steadily defused as the true facts and context were made clear".

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:552

evidence: In blogs, talk radio and other new media, we are told that the warnings about future global warming issued by the national science academies, scientific societies, and governments of all the leading nations are not only mistaken, but based on a hoax, indeed a conspiracy that must involve thousands of respected researchers.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:70

evidence: In this context, John Tierney of The New York Times wrote: "these researchers, some of the most prominent climate experts in Britain and America, seem so focused on winning the public-relations war that they exaggerate their certitude – and ultimately undermine their own cause".


text: It found the scientists' rigour and honesty are not in doubt, and their behaviour did not prejudice the IPCC's conclusions, though they did fail to display the proper degree of openness.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:135

evidence: Scientific integrity demands robust, independent peer review, however, and AAAS therefore emphasised that investigations are appropriate whenever significant questions are raised regarding the transparency and rigour of the scientific method, the peer-review process, or the responsibility of individual scientists.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:163

evidence: The committee criticised a "culture of non-disclosure at CRU" and a general lack of transparency in climate science where scientific papers had usually not included all the data and code used in reconstructions.

evidence_id: Climatic Research Unit email controversy:239

evidence: The report, issued on 18 February 2011, cleared the researchers and "did not find any evidence that NOAA inappropriately manipulated data or failed to adhere to appropriate peer review procedures".

evidence_id: Global warming conspiracy theory:12

article: Global warming conspiracy theory

evidence: The Muir Russell report stated that the scientists' "rigor and honesty as scientists are not in doubt," that the investigators "did not find any evidence of behavior that might undermine the conclusions of the IPCC assessments," but that there had been "a consistent pattern of failing to display the proper degree of openness."

evidence_id: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:33

evidence: This document also states that IPCC will do this work by assessing "on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis" of these topics.


text: […] Constant 24-7  media coverage of every significant storm worldwide just makes it seem  that way.”

evidence_id: 2003 invasion of Iraq:553

article: 2003 invasion of Iraq

evidence: This attracted considerable media coverage at the time.

evidence_id: Daniel Bryan:2060

article: Daniel Bryan

evidence: "Radican's ROH Respect Is Earned Report 7/20: ongoing "virtual time" coverage of PPV".

evidence_id: Gulf War:681

article: Gulf War

evidence: At the same time, the war's coverage was new in its instantaneousness.

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:422

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: The severe and widespread damage the storm caused in the United States, as well as its unusual merger with a frontal system, resulted in the nicknaming of the hurricane "Superstorm Sandy" by the media, public officials, and several organizations, including U.S. government agencies.

evidence_id: Hurricane Sandy:76

article: Hurricane Sandy

evidence: As coverage continued, several media outlets began eschewing this term in favor of "superstorm".


text: It is unclear whether global warming is increasing hurricane frequency but there is increasing evidence that warming increases hurricane intensity.

evidence_id: Effects of global warming:79

article: Effects of global warming

evidence: more intense droughts and tropical cyclones) are more uncertain.

evidence_id: Extreme weather:2

article: Extreme weather

evidence: In recent years, growing evidence suggests that human-induced global warming is increasing the periodicity and intensity of some extreme weather events.

evidence_id: Global warming:159

article: Global warming

evidence: The maximum rainfall and wind speed from hurricanes and typhoons are likely increasing.

article: Global warming

evidence_id: Global warming:9

article: Global warming

evidence: The effects of global warming include rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, and expansion of deserts.


text: Al Gore's film was "broadly accurate" according to an expert witness called when an attempt was made through the courts to prevent the film being shown in schools.

evidence_id: Al Gore:399

article: Al Gore

evidence: In a 2007 court case, a British judge said that while he had "no doubt ...the film was broadly accurate" and its "four main scientific hypotheses ...are supported by a vast quantity of research", he upheld nine of a "long schedule" of alleged errors presented to the court.

evidence_id: Al Gore:400

article: Al Gore

evidence: He ruled that the film could be shown to schoolchildren in the UK if guidance notes given to teachers were amended to balance out the film's one-sided political views.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:249

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: The plaintiffs sought an injunction preventing the screening of the film in English schools, arguing that by law schools are forbidden to promote partisan political views and, when dealing with political issues, are required to provide a balanced presentation of opposing views.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:251

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: The judge ruled that An Inconvenient Truth contained nine scientific errors and thus must be accompanied by an explanation of those errors before being shown to school children.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:631

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: Gore climate documentary to be shown in schools.


text: While there are minor errors in An Inconvenient Truth, the main truths presented - evidence to show mankind is causing global warming and its various impacts is consistent with peer reviewed science.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:106

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: The survey, published as an editorial in the journal Science, found that every article either supported the human-caused global warming consensus or did not comment on it.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:109

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: All 19 climate scientists who had seen the movie or had read the homonymous book said that Gore accurately conveyed the science, with few errors.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:54

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: Gore's presentation was the most powerful and clear explanation of global warming I had ever seen.

evidence_id: An Inconvenient Truth:836

article: An Inconvenient Truth

evidence: "Judge attacks nine errors in Al Gore's 'alarmist' climate change film".

evidence_id: Global warming:276

article: Global warming

evidence: In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.


text: While there are isolated cases of growing glaciers, the overwhelming trend in glaciers worldwide is retreat.

article: Glacier

evidence: Following the Little Ice Age's end around 1850, glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially.

article: Glacier

evidence: A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous.

article: Himalayas

evidence: In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change.

evidence_id: Holocene glacial retreat:0

article: Holocene glacial retreat

evidence: The Holocene glacial retreat is a geographical phenomenon that involved the global deglaciation of glaciers that previously had advanced during the Last Glacial Maximum.

article: Subantarctic

evidence: Glaciers are currently retreating at significant rates throughout the southern hemisphere.


text: In fact, the global melt rate has been accelerating since the mid-1970s.

evidence_id: Global warming:437

article: Global warming

evidence: This effect results in the increased absorption of radiation that accelerates melting."

evidence_id: Sea level rise:3

article: Sea level rise

evidence: This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:492

article: Sea level rise

evidence: "Antarctica ice melt has accelerated by 280% in the last 4 decades".

evidence_id: Sea level rise:65

article: Sea level rise

evidence: However scientists have found that ice is being lost, and at an accelerating rate.

evidence_id: Sea level rise:85

article: Sea level rise

evidence: A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatons (Gt) per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002, but has accelerated to an average of 220 Gt per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017.


text: Cosmic ray counts have increased over the past 50 years, so if they do influence global temperatures, they are having a cooling effect.

article: Eocene

evidence: Oxygen isotope analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion of heavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures.

evidence_id: Global warming:106

article: Global warming

evidence: The main balancing feedback to global temperature change is radiative cooling to space as infrared radiation, which increases strongly with increasing temperature.

evidence_id: Global warming:22

article: Global warming

evidence: Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

evidence_id: Global warming:358

article: Global warming

evidence: IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 124: Global warming refers to the gradual increase, observed or projected, in global surface temperature, as one of the consequences of radiative forcing caused by anthropogenic emissions.

evidence_id: Global warming:79

article: Global warming

evidence: Globally, these effects are estimated to have led to a slight cooling, dominated by an increase in surface albedo.


text: By regulating the Earth’s cloud cover, the Sun  can turn the temperature up and down. ...

evidence_id: Climate change (general concept):53

article: Climate change (general concept)

evidence: These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere and/or by altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.

article: Earth

evidence: This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature.

evidence_id: Global warming:116

article: Global warming

evidence: If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

evidence_id: Global warming:56

article: Global warming

evidence: Without the Earth's atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water.

article: Sun

evidence: The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.


text: While the link between cosmic rays and cloud cover is yet to be confirmed, more importantly, there has been no correlation between cosmic rays and global temperatures over the last 30 years of global warming.

evidence_id: Attribution of recent climate change:231

article: Attribution of recent climate change

evidence: Together with the lack of a proven physical mechanism and the plausibility of other causal factors affecting changes in cloud cover, this makes the association between galactic cosmic ray-induced changes in aerosol and cloud formation controversial Studies by Lockwood and Fröhlich (2007) and Sloan and Wolfendale (2008) found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays.

evidence_id: Cosmic ray:216

article: Cosmic ray

evidence: Despite Svensmark's assertions, galactic cosmic rays have shown no statistically significant influence on changes in cloud cover, and have been demonstrated in studies to have no causal relationship to changes in global temperature.

evidence_id: Henrik Svensmark:62

article: Henrik Svensmark

evidence: Sloan and Wolfendale (2013) demonstrated that while temperature models showed a small correlation every 22 years, less than 14 percent of global warming since the 1950s could be attributed to cosmic ray rate.

evidence_id: Henrik Svensmark:64

article: Henrik Svensmark

evidence: Another 2013 study found, contrary to Svensmark's claims, "no statistically significant correlations between cosmic rays and global albedo or globally averaged cloud height."

evidence_id: Henrik Svensmark:65

article: Henrik Svensmark

evidence: In 2013, a laboratory study by Svensmark, Pepke and Pedersen published in Physics Letters A showed, that there is in fact a correlation between cosmic rays and the formation of aerosols of the type that seed clouds.