text: Yields can also be calculated by measuring the amount of product formed (typically in the crude, unpurified reaction mixture) relative to a known amount of an added internal standard, using techniques like Gas chromatography (GC),  High-performance liquid chromatography, or Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR spectroscopy) or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS).  A yield determined using this approach is known as an internal standard yield.  Yields are typically obtained in this manner to accurately determine the quantity of product produced by a reaction, irrespective of potential isolation problems.  Additionally, they can be useful when isolation of the product is challenging or tedious, or when the rapid determination of an approximate yield is desired.  Unless otherwise indicated, yields reported in the synthetic organic and inorganic chemistry literature refer to isolated yields, which better reflect the amount of pure product one is likely to obtain under the reported conditions, upon repeating the experimental procedure.