4) ohmic resistance: R ohm , 5) charge transfer resistance: R ct , and 6) polarization resistance: R p . We calculate resistances through pulse measurements performed during the hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) sequence of the diagnostic cycle at various SOCs and timescales (see SI Section S.3.2 for definitions and calculation details for resistance metrics). Unless otherwise specified, the resistances reported are at 50% SOC.