Initial phase I clinical trials of a glycosylation-modified antigen therapy described above, based on preclinical research, are being carried out in patients with celiac disease and multiple sclerosis by the pharmaceutical company Anokion , a company co-founded by Jeffrey Hubbell, one of the researchers behind the inverse vaccine concept. Anokion has already launched clinical trials to test whether this type of inverse vaccine might help people with multiple sclerosis. Another company exploring inverse vaccine platform with the potential to treat autoimmune diseases is Nykode Therapeutics, a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company dedicated to the discovery and development of novel immunotherapies. The company is utilizing its antigen presenting cells-targeted technology to create an inverse vaccine platform for the potential use in autoimmune disorders, organ transplant rejections, anti-drug antibody reactions and allergy. Nykode has demonstrated significant effects of its inverse vaccine platform in preclinical models of multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes. The data, which were presented in a poster at the 7th Antigen-Specific Immune Tolerance Drug Development Summit in 2024, "provide motivation to pursue a completely new approach to treating autoimmune diseases". Nykode's inverse vaccine technology is devised to deliver small circular DNAs to muscle cells, providing instructions for making the Vaccibody proteins, which are subsequently secreted by the cells and target antigen-presenting cells. Pasithea Therapeutics 41 dedicated to developing drugs for nervous system disorders, has recently announced hopeful preclinical results for a tolerogenic, inverse DNA vaccine for multiple sclerosis. Intramuscular injections of the candidate vaccine (PAS002) is reported to delay the onset of paralysis, and reduce severity of disease. Prophylactic administration also reduced the incidence and severity of relapse in the mouse model. Overall, the future of inverse vaccine research appears bright, showing promising potential. With continued investment, scientific breakthroughs, and careful clinical evaluation, these novel vaccines have the potential to transform the treatment of autoimmune diseases, but it will require further development and testing to ensure safety and efficacy in humans.