The sluggishness of OER is heavily influenced by the binding energies of reaction intermediates on the catalyst surface . According to the Sabatier principle, an ideal catalyst must exhibit moderate binding-strong enough to stabilize intermediates but weak enough to enable efficient desorption. Most catalytic materials deviate from this balance, leading to overbinding or underbinding of intermediates such as *OH, *O, and *OOH. Overbinding causes the intermediates to linger on the catalyst surface, blocking active sites and hindering subsequent reaction steps. Conversely, underbinding prevents sufficient interaction with the catalyst, reducing the likelihood of intermediate formation and reaction progression .