O-GEIS measurements were conducted with a single impedance point per scan without averaging between a frequency range of 100 -794 Hz. The applied current density ranged between 5 -25 mA cm -2 with 10 points per decade in logarithmic spacing, and the current excitation amplitude was 10% of the applied current density, ranging from 0.5 -2.5 mA cm -2 . The drift correction option in the EC-Lab software was enabled to compensate for changes in the cell voltage during measurements. Between each scan, the cell was held at 0 V to reset the OCV and allow for The data were also fitted to a two-step BV model (Eqs. 23 and 39), assuming α1 = 0.5 and α2 = 3, to calculate the values of I0,1 and I0,2 by least-squares error minimization.