The concept of disrupting signaling pathways by electrostatic interactions using highly negative charged molecules has been applied before: dendritic polyglycerol sulfate (dPGS) was first confirmed to inhibit inflammation by electrostatically interacting with P-and L-selectin, thus reducing leukocyte extravasation. Later, interaction with complement system proteins C1q, C3a and C5a was observed, leading to complement activation reduction via all three pathways. Anti-inflammatory effects have also been observed for cationic polymers: polyamidoamine dendrimers were shown to interact with cyclooxygenase 2 and reduce inflammation in vivo. A clinical application that follows this principle is the use of heparin to reduce blood clot formation. Heparin is a highly negatively charged sulfated and carboxylated glycosaminoglycan.