and incubated at 37 C with gentle shaking for 16 h to reach stationary phase. Subsequently, aliquots of the bacteria culture were drop-casted onto the sample surfaces at a density of 10 4 CFU per mL, followed by incubation at 37 C for 6 h (12 h for the immersion-coated ITO samples). After incubation, the substrates with the bacterial inoculum were immersed in fresh LB medium and sonicated for 3 min to detach the bacteria adhering to the surface.