The comparison between the current profile from battery cycler and the simulated profile generated by the EV Simulink model confirms that both exhibit the same trend (Supplementary figure ). Detailed testing policies with safety protocols are provided in (Supplementary information). In the first policy (Supplementary table 6), the cells were rested for one minute, charged to 3.9 V in constant current mode at 1C, and then subjected to a simulated profile. This process was repeated for the remaining three profiles. In the second policy(Supplementary table ), all four simulated profiles were executed sequentially without any rest or intermediate charging.