Before conducting SEM, TEM, and XPS studies of cycled electrodes, cells were disassembled in the glovebox, and the obtained electrodes were rinsed with DME to remove residue salts. The cross-sections of Li anodes were obtained by cutting the Li foils with a razor blade. Air-free transfer vessels were used to avoid any contamination from the air. Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer (UV-vis, Agilent Cary5000, USA) was used to quantify the concentration of NO 3 -based on its absorbance at 297 nm.