The CI of SAF production is subject to significant variation and uncertainty based on spatially explicit LCA and tends to be overestimated by low carbon fuel policies (Figure ). The SAF CI calculated via spatially explicit LCA had a median value of -100.7 g CO2e×MJ -1 and 5 th to 95 th percentiles of [(-)319.5 to (+)9.0] according to system expansion, -75.5 g CO2e×MJ -1 [(-)239.5 to (+)6.8] according to hybrid allocation, and -8.9 g CO2e×MJ -1 [(-)45.7 to (+)21.1] according to energy-based allocation (Table ). Thus, the CI of the median-CI locations is overestimated approximately 27 (45Z), 69 (CFR), 80 (LCFS), and 99 (RFS) percent of the time by existing policy frameworks (Figure ). The overall CI of SAF production is largely dependent on co-product electricity production and the CI of miscanthus production (Table , SI Table ). Thus, location-specific parameters, namely the miscanthus CI and electricity CI, are important factors governing the overall SAF production CI (Figure ). States that have both a low miscanthus CI and high electricity CI, such as South Dakota, are able to achieve the lowest total SAF CI (median of approximately -160 g CO2e×MJ -1 ) due to large amounts of soil carbon sequestration and displaced electricity from highemissions sources. Conversely, higher total SAF CIs are likely to occur in states with higher of the SI.