Because electricity dominates the environmental impacts of LIB recycling processes, a comparison of electricity grid balancing areas that emit a range of CO2-eq emissions per MWh (averaged for 2019) are examined in Fig. (additional criteria air pollutants detailed in Table ). Substituting NEVP electricity with other balancing areas including Bonneville Power Administration Transmission (BPAT), California Independent System Operator (CISO), Western Area Power Administration of Colorado-Missouri (WACM), and a 100% renewable energy tariff in Nevada (NV*), yields a significant reduction in CO2-eq emissions of up to 93.3% (recycled scrap) and 87.4% (recycled battery) relative to conventional refinement (Fig. ). Conversely, employing low-carbon electricity grids can increase water consumption compared with NEVPbased operation, following the order of NV* > BPAT > WACM > CISO > NEVP (Fig. ). Note that NV*-and BPAT-based circular refinement processes exceed the water consumption level of conventional refinement due to significant contributions from hydro-and geothermal power.