Clean and safe drinking water is vital to public health and socioeconomic development ADDIN EN.CITE (. Public water systems are essential drinking water sources in modern society. For instance, in the United States (U.S.), over 90% of people obtain drinking water from approximately 150,000 public water systems (U.S. . Public water systems provide water for human consumption through engineered water systems, including drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) and building premise plumbing systems . Poor drinking water quality causes disease outbreaks and chronic diseases, leading to significant socioeconomic losses . Therefore, assessing and ensuring water quality, especially in engineered water systems, is critical to public health and the welfare of society .