Half-cells were assembled as CR2032 coin cells. The cells containing the dried anode (12 mm diameter) pre-deposited on a current collector, separator, lithium metal, 316L stainless steel spacer and a spring were assembled in a glovebox (<0.1 ppm O2). A schematic of the assembled coin cell is shown in supplementary figure S1. The separator used was a 2325 Celgard separator and the lithium metal discs (15 mm diameter) were purchased from S4R, France. The electrolyte used in all experiments was 45 μL of 85% 1 M LiPF6 in EC/DEC (1:1) and 15% fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC, Solvay-Fluor). The mass loading of the cells ranged from 0.15-1.5 mg/cm 2 depending on the layer configuration. The cells were kept at 30℃ throughout the experiments. All electrochemical measurements were conducted using a Bio-Logic BCS battery cycler. Potentiostatic electrical impedance spectroscopy (PEIS) measurements were conducted using a frequency range of 0.01 MHz to 1 Hz with an amplitude of 10 mV after delithiation. Post-mortem analysis was conducted after delithiation.