For TCID50 measurements, cells were plated at 1.2×10 4 cells per well in 96-well plates the day before the experiment. On the experiment day, cells were exposed to 50 μL of serial 3-fold diluted virus samples starting with dilution factor 1/54000 across four replicates in DMEM/F12 media for 1 h. Following the initial virus exposure, the media was replaced with 100 µL of fresh DMEM/F12 supplemented with 2% FBS. The cytopathic effects (CPE) were observed, and TCID50 values were calculated using the enhanced Kärber method after incubation periods of 2 days.