to our knowledge, the present study represents one of the early substantial efforts to investigate the dust metabolome/exposome and microbiome in the context of PD, and more specifically in PD associated with the penetrance of LRRK2 pathogenic variants. BPS, PFAS, and BThs showed significantly higher levels in the PD+/LRRK2+ group compared with the PD-/LRRK2+ and should be investigated further (with a larger sample size) to determine whether they could be potential modifiers of LRRK2 penetrance associated with PD. Moreover, several taxa and KOs were significantly different between groups, with various species (e.g., Clavibacter michiganensis and Marmoricola sp. Leaf446) displaying significantly lower abundances in the PD-/LRRK2+ group compared to the iPD group (Figure ).