For all encapsulated systems, bead lifetime was a significant driver for LC and CI (Figure ). Shorter bead longevities resulted in higher bead replacement frequencies (e.g., 30 times throughout the 30-yr project lifetime with a 1-year longevity). on LC and CI also scale with the amount of beads required. Therefore, the highest cost and impacts were observed with packed bed systems with long HRT and short bead lifetime, and increasing the volume fraction of beads in a fluidized bed system tended to negatively affect its sustainability (Figure ).