Microscopic images were taken using a Thorlabs camera and fluorescence trinocular microscope (Model: DM RB Type 301-371.010, 501005/175257). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) images were taken using a Zeiss-Supra 40 scanning electron microscopy. The Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM, Bruker) was used in the scanasyst-air measurement mode, employing a triangular silicon nitride cantilever with a reflective aluminium coating on the backside. The AFM images obtained were subsequently analyzed using the Gwyddion 2.61 software. The Freestyle Freedom Lite glucometer and test strips (Abbott) were used to measure the glucose concentrations in artificial saliva and real saliva samples. All the collected measurements were imported into OriginPro 2021 for data processing and analysis.