In these studies, the BPM-ED system was run with various electrolyte flowrates, and the extent of CO2 bubbling was quantified by determining the noise in the measured electrostatic potential as calculated by the standard deviation in the measured transmembrane potential (details on these experiments can be found in Section S21). Figure compares standard deviation of potential as a function of applied current density for three different flow rates (0.2, 1, and 5 mL min -1 ). As shown in the figure, the extent of bubbling is much more severe for lower flowrates, and the onset of bubbling occurs at lower current densities, as predicted from the model. Indeed, in the presence of bicarbonate (Figure ), the average voltage is highest for the lowest flowrate, indicating that an increase in bubble coverage under reduced flows leads to decreased surface area and increased resistance. This experimental data further supports the importance of flowrate and bubble mitigation on maintaining low cell voltages when operating BPMs for carbon removal due to the surface area losses driven by CO2 bubble formation on membrane surfaces.