The references above have a recent addition in the form of a J Clin Invest review ('Academia and industry: allocating credit for discovery and development of new therapies', 2019, PMID 31107243, which also features as an 'In The Pipeline' commentary with additional references). While this is also US-centric, it includes a well-framed summary that can be directly quoted in its entirety to round off this section (and it introduces some points that will be picked up later on); 'The discovery and development of new therapies has and will likely continue to require contributions from academic institutions and the biopharmaceutical industry. Most (but not all) new insights into biology, disease, and new technologies arise in academia, funded by public grants, foundations, and institutional funds. Academic institutions identify promising discoveries and seek to initiate their development and commercialization, eventually partnering with for-profit biopharmaceutical companies, either established or venture-funded start-ups. To complete the path from molecular insight to approvable therapy, major involvement of industry is required, as it possesses the insights, culture, skills, and capital typically unavailable in the academic realm. Cooperation between academia and industry takes many forms, including transfer of information, intellectual property, and reagents; consultation with industry by academic experts; and movement of people between these domains. The two cultures are different: teamwork toward shared therapeutic goals characterizes industry, and diverse paths to individual credit characterize academia. This cultural divide sometimes impedes successful interactions. A goal of public policy should be to facilitate such interchanges to enhance the success of the combined enterprise'. A specific example from this undertaking was IMI Newmeds which had the objective to explore novel methods leading to new medications in depression and schizophrenia. The constituted psychiatry consortium, comprising of multiple pharma and academic groups, was awarded 22.5M€ over five years. The project validated multiple approaches between independent partners. However, it also implicated so many mutations and copy number variants in schizophrenia that it was not practically possible to discern molecular targets for the many individual changes. This means assessing therapeutic impact at the brain circuit level (and therefore a measure of phenotypical screening) was necessary (see 'Defining the brain circuits involved in psychiatric disorders: IMI-NEWMEDS', 2017, PMID 27811930). However, this approach has opened the way for treating depression with ketamine and related drugs.