Recent studies have enabled more detailed, single-cell level analyses and predictions of biofilm development in engineered water systems . In addition, studies have expanded ML algorithms to incorporate deep learning . These innovative approaches can enhance the assessment of biofilm dynamics in various settings including engineered water systems. A recent work a multi-class U-Net , and BCM3D 2.0 . Finally, the accurate single-cell segmentation results were used to track cell lineages and to spatiotemporally measure single-cell growth rates.