As illustrated in Figure , two distinct driving styles (assertive and defensive) are characterized based on the original velocity drive cycles. These velocity profiles were simulated using our in-house EV Simulink model (Supplementary figure ), which incorporates terrain features by adjusting gradient angles to represent uphill , downhill (-20), and flat plane(0) conditions. Since the gradient angle is a model parameter, each drive cycle was simulated under three different terrain scenarios. The 69 simulated profiles resulting from the initial 23 drive cycles are depicted in Figure .