X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Before each X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurement, the glass samples were polished using SiC paper with anhydrous diamond suspension and hexane to obtain a smooth surface. The crystalline samples were dried and ground into powder using a mortar. The XPS measurements were performed using a Hiden MAXIM SIMS system equipped with a Specs XR50 X-ray source and a Specs Phoibos 150 electronic analyzer. The X-ray beam generated by the aluminum anode had a wavelength of λ=0.83401 nm, and X-ray optics ensured signal collection from spots approximately 2 mm in diameter, including glass samples. Subsequent data analysis was performed using CasaXPS Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The samples were directly placed onto the conductive adhesive and then sprayed with gold for 45 seconds using a Quorum SC7620 sputter coater at 10 mA. The microstructures of the samples were then acquired using a ZEISS GeminiSEM 300 scanning electron microscope for topography and energy mapping, with an accelerating voltage of 3 kV for topography and 15 kV for energy mapping. The detector was an SE2 secondary electron detector.