Here, 𝒩 ↓ = -3 x 10 13 -Φ !"! x 1 x 10 15 (the linear least squares fit result of 𝒩↓ vs Φ !"! , Fig. ), b=(kBT) -1 with kB being the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature (300K), and e is the elementary charge. The model recapitulates the experimental data with a coupling constant, J, of -1 x 10 -34 J for the aligned Stern layer water molecules, again using e=1.9. With z = 6, we find J= -0.6 x 10 -34 J best recapitulates the experimental data. These results support the notion that the experiments are largely sensitive to the dipole "up" vs "down" orientations of the Stern layer water molecules. At the highest applied potential, where 𝒩 ↓ = 𝒩↓,max = 1 x 10 15 molecules, the work associated with water flipping corresponds to 80 kJ mol -1 , exceeding the cohesive energy of ice by 20 kJ mol -1 (45). Fig. shows that the water flipping process begins prior to the onset of Faradaic current flow (the nickel oxidation wave at +0.4 V), indicating that the oxygen evolution reaction in this case requires water flipping first, followed by electron transfer.