QCM measurements were performed using an openQCM NEXT instrument (Novatech Srl., Italy) equipped with a temperature-controlled cell connected to a Masterflex Digital Miniflex peristaltic pump (Cole-Parmer Instrument Company, UK). All experiments were conducted in PBS buffer (pH 7.4) and no measurements were undertaken until the sensor frequency exhibited a drift of less than 0.1 Hz min -1 ; this typically occurred within 1 h of filling the cell. Once a stable signal was obtained, the phage solutions (1 x 10 12 PFU / mL) in PBS were passed through the cell at a constant flow rate of 0.018 mL min -1 (minimum flow volume = 0.20 mL).