Principal Component 1 (PC1) is strongly influenced by total deceleration, total acceleration, and braking frequency, while Principal Component 2 (PC2) is primarily driven by total distance and average velocity. The close positioning of total deceleration and total acceleration in the loading plot suggests that they contribute similarly to Principal Component 1, though they have opposite meaning. Since the features affecting PC1 (acceleration, deceleration, braking frequency) and PC2 (total distance, average velocity) are nearly at right angles in the loading plot, they are largely uncorrelated in the transformed PCA space. This suggests that variations in driving dynamics (acceleration, braking) do not strongly influence total trip distance or average velocity. By applying K-means clustering to the PCA-transformed data reveals two distinct clusters as shown in Figure . These clusters are labeled assertive (left) and defensive (right), with training and test samples evenly distributed. PC1 has negative loadings for total acceleration, deceleration, and braking frequency. This means that assertive driving is characterized by frequent acceleration and braking and corresponds to lower PC1 values, while defensive driving, with smoother relatively less acceleration changes, corresponds to higher PC1 values (Supplementary figure ). This classification effectively differentiates driving behaviors based on the five extracted features and is consistently maintained throughout the study, including for the three reference drive cycles highlighted in red.