Specifically, for both blocking and intercalating conditions, the solution resistance ( Pseudo-steady-state extrapolation chronopotentiometry (S3E-CP) was conducted by applying a series of short galvanostatic pulses with current density ranging from 5 to 100 mA cm - 2 with 10 points per decade in logarithmic spacing. Each pulse was terminated at a capacity limit of 15 μAh cm -2 (~ 10% SOC) and voltage data were recorded every 0.05 μAh cm -2 . Immediately after each pulse, the cell was held at an applied voltage of 0 V to reset the open circuit voltage (OCV) and allow the cell to cool between measurements. The rest time varied with current density, ranging from 3 min at 5 mA cm -2 to 30 min at 100 mA cm -2 . PEIS data were taken after each rest step to ensure stability of the measurements. For each pulse, a linear fit was applied between a capacity range of 6 and 13.5 uAh cm -2 to calculate the intercept at zero capacity, which gives the extrapolated pseudo-steady state voltage for each current density. The IR drop was subtracted from the voltage versus current data based on the value of RΩ measured with PEIS, and the residual was divided by two to give the overpotential of a single electrode. The overpotential versus current data were fitted to both a BV model (Eq. 9-13) and a Tafel model (Eq. 14). Excel Solver was used to fit the apparent values of α and I0 with least-squares error minimization.