In LIB supply chains, the refinement step converts the collected feedstocks into battery-grade salts for further manufacturing (Fig. ). In both conventional and circular supply chains, the refinement pathways vary significantly depending on multiple factors. Five refinement pathways are compared in this study (Fig. ). While conventional refinement starts with mined ores/brines (1 and 2), circular refinement starts with either end-of-life batteries (1 and 2) or battery scrap (5).