For perfusion experiments, we placed the scaffolds in the dry microfluidic chip wells. To avoid the formation of air bubbles in the microfluidic channels, we previously filled them with D 2 O. We then placed the custom-made meshes (Fig. ) on top of the scaffolds to ensure the perfusivity of the system. Through the microfluidic channels, we injected D 2 O so to perfuse the scaffolds (Fig. ). We used controlled flow rates of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, and 10 mL/min. For manual injections, we estimated a varying flow rate of ≈ 10 -50 mL/min. We imaged the system before and after injection to identify the location of the water proton signal. We then manually defined the scaffold and well ROIs. Also, note that any flow rate value reported indicates the one used for the injection through the syringe pump, which gets distributed across the 4 parallel channels, causes the flow reached in the well be one-quarter of the original one.