To provide supplemental information besides cyclic voltammetry, spectroscopic techniques, including UV-Vis, IR spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), are commonly engaged. For example, a triazole formed from azide-alkyne coupling has a representative band in IR spectroscopy, offering a unique feature to confirm the success of the immobilization. XPS provides the identification of elements that are present on the surface. UV-Vis and XAS are often combined to study the oxidation states of the metal center on the anchored site. X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure analysis (EXAFS) are often employed to provide complementary structural information.