Since charge protocols are typically standardized and are carried out using a constant current governed by the BMS and charging stations , we employed the same charging profile across all experiments. We cycled all batteries in a temperature-controlled chamber set at 35 °C for technological relevance . Each test protocol is duplicated. Periodically throughout aging, we performed reference performance tests (RPT) and hybrid pulse power characterizations (HPPC) to probe the state of degradation of the cells (see Methods). We extracted resistances from HPPC, and fit a half-cell differential voltage model Dynamic cycling enhances battery lifetime to the C/40 RPT to extract electrode-specific information (negative electrode capacity Q ne , positive electrode capacity Q pe , and lithium inventory Q Li ) .