Here, I denotes the identity matrix, and K is the skew-symmetric matrix based on the cross product ⃗ v = ⃗ N × ⃗ z, where ⃗ z = [0, 0, 1]. The dot product c = ⃗ N • ⃗ z measures the cosine of the angle between ⃗ N and ⃗ z, and s = ∥⃗ v∥ is the magnitude of ⃗ v, indicating the sine of the angle between ⃗ N and ⃗ z. The skew-symmetric matrix K is constructed from ⃗ v's components v x , v y , v z as follows: