However, the limited supply of critical materials (e.g., Li, Ni, Co, and Cu 1 ) needed for prominent LIB chemistries has exacerbated environmental, economic, national security, and human rights concerns . Critical LIB materials are projected to reach major global supply-demand balance deficits before 2030 (Fig. ). Further, both mining of LIB materials and improper disposal of end-of-life LIBs can damage natural and human ecosystems, cause occupational hazards during handling, and result in monetary losses .