Finally, on the supercomputing systems front, the changes have been fairly radical, using Top500 as a reference, most of the major changes can be easily monitored. First, the amount of parallelism has drastically increased: the top runner in Top500 had 200 000 cores in June 2010, and now it has 9 million cores (a 45× increase). The overall system organization has also radically changed: in 2010, GPUs were used in less than 40 systems among the 500, now over half of the systems are equipped with GPUs. Today's top systems exhibit a heterogeneous architecture, integrating both CPUs and GPUs, though the bulk of computational capability predominantly stems from the GPUs. Moreover, the total power consumption of these systems has increased by an order of magnitude, rising from 3 MW to 30 MW, albeit with a notably irregular progression, as depicted in Figure . This underscores the substantial enhancements in system design, particularly in terms of energy efficiency.