All electrochemical measurements were conducted on LCO symmetric cells, which contained electrodes with a mass loading of ~ 1.3 mg cm -2 . The electrodes were either pristine (blocking condition) or charged to 4.15 V vs. Li/Li + (intercalating condition), corresponding to ~ 50% state-of-charge (SOC). The cells were housed in a temperature chamber with 0.1 °C precision (Espec), and unless otherwise stated, measurements were taken at 25.0 °C. A Biologic VMP-300 potentiostat was used for all measurements. The EIS Quality Indicators option in EC-LAB software was enabled, which calculates the total harmonic distortion (THD) and non-stationary distortion (NSD) for every EIS measurement. Potential-controlled EIS (PEIS) was conducted with a 10 mV excitation amplitude about a constant cell voltage of 0 V. Pore resistance (Rp) of the electrodes was measured with the PEIS of symmetric cells under blocking conditions in the frequency range of 500 kHz -10 Hz. Linearized charge-transfer resistance (𝑅 𝑐𝑡 0 ) was measured with PEIS of symmetric cells under intercalating conditions in the frequency range of 500 kHz -1 Hz. The values of Rp and 𝑅 𝑐𝑡 0 were fitted from the Nyquist data with Morasch's method .