where GHG bat, per unit energy is the emissions intensity of battery manufacturing, and the f P P term describes the effect of the payload penalty on emissions as we need more BETs to deliver the same amount of freight compared to the diesel counterparts. We use the reported emissions for the NMC and LFP technologies which are 86 kg CO 2,eq /kWh and 69 kg CO 2,eq /kWh respectively and assume it to be constant over the different time scenarios. However, there are several estimates available in the literature for the emissions intensity of battery production which spans a large range between 30 -270 kg CO 2,eq /kWh. These variances can be explained by the different accounting methods and different technological and grid developments over the span of the studies. An additional consideration when allocating emissions from battery manufacturing comes from the potential of secondary use. Hence, for LFP batteries, we distribute battery manufacturing emissions over two trucks.