Cell testing. The cell testing involved three Samsung 30T 21700 lithium-ion cells, each with a nominal capacity of 3000 mAh and a voltage rating of 4.2 V. All the cells were tested using an Arbin 5V/60A cycler within a controlled chamber maintained at 25°C. Prior to experimental cycling, the cells underwent an initial reference test (Supplementary Table ) to check for deviations from manufacturer specifications (Supplementary figure ).