To improve the performance of anode-free Li-metal baaeries, several strategies have been suggested in the literature, such as: modificaFon of the current collector, creaFon of arFficial SEI, opFmizaFon of electrolyte formulaFons and modificaFon of the cycling protocol . Some of the work on current collector modificaFon strategy include invesFgaFon of other metals and alloys , or applying coaFngs such as lithophilic Ag nanoparFcles and SiOx oxide layer which can improve Li weaability favouring more compact and uniform metallic Li deposits. Another approach is incorporaFng Si3N4 nanoporous medium or modifying Cu foil with C shells with Au nanoparFcles to suppress dendrite growth. Several reports propose 3D structured microporous Cu current collectors for promoFng homogeneity of current distribuFon and hence prevent Li dendrite growth . ArFficial SEI formaFon strategy is realized by applying protecFve coaFng onto the Cu surface, such as polyethylene oxide , mulFlayer graphene 20 , and graphene oxide 21 which accommodate Li deposits and reduce Li surface passivaFon, or Al2O3 layer which improves electrochemical stability of liquid electrolytes. Performance improvements were also aaempted by modificaFon of convenFonal carbonate-based electrolyte with 1 M LiPF6, for instance, with dual salt LiDFOB/LiBF4 liquid electrolyte , dual addiFves KPF6/Tris (trimethylsilyl) phosphite and dual salt LiFSI/LiTFSI ether soluFon . ModificaFon of the cycling protocol strategy considers changing parameters such as cut-off voltages or employing pulsed current instead of constant-current charging. Herein, we propose not to alter the chemistry but solely the electrochemical procedure to assess whether or not a first-order improvement can also be achieved. Pulsed current charging protocols can improve performance of anode-free Li-metal baaery as it produces smoother and more compact electroplated films compared to constant current protocols. This has been demonstrated not only in LMBs cycling but also in the formaFon of SEI on graphite , and electroplaFng of various metals and semiconductors . During electroplaFng with constant current, the metal ions at the electrode surface are constantly consumed and their concentraFon decreases. As the plaFng proceeds, the constant consumpFon of metal ions leads to a depleFon of ions at the electrode surface. The higher the current density, the higher the rate of consumpFon of metal ions. The adsorbed metal ions are energeFcally unstable and tend to move towards already formed clusters, increasing the surface irregulariFes. In contrast to to the constant-current protocol, the pulsed current consists of alternaFng constant current for a certain period of on-Fme, and off-Fme, during which the current density is 0. During the off-Fme, the concentraFon of metal ions at the electrode surface is being replenished, reducing the depleFon layer. When the current is switched on again, the higher concentraFon of metal ions at the electrode surface hinders the mobility of the metal ions along the surface. Consequently, the deposits exhibit finer grains and a smoother surface as a result of reduced mobility of adsorbed ions at the electrode surface . Baaery formaFon is an iniFal charge and discharge process in which a solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) layer is formed, typically on an anode. ConvenFonally, the formaFon is carried out for several charge and discharge cycles at very low currents of C/20 to C/10 taking days to complete . In this work, we invesFgate the effects of constant current and pulsed current formaFon on the morphology and impedance of electroplated metallic Li on Cu foil current collectors in anode-free lithium-metal coin cells, as well as the Coulombic efficiency arer formaFon. We show the difference in morphology of metallic Li electroplated at constantcurrent compared to that obtained with pulsed current charging, with smoother pulse-plated films exhibiFng a lower resistance and a higher Coulombic efficiency. Furthermore, the Fme required to complete the formaFon cycle is more than halved by employing an opFmised pulsed current formaFon protocol compared to the convenFonal constant-current C/20 protocol. The protocol is compaFble with LIBs manufacturing, carried out without modifying the convenFonal chemistry, nor modifying Cu current collector with addiFonal material which adds weight and volume or addiFonal processing step of the Cu foil. In addiFon, by using a regression model, we propose the pseudo-IR-drop parameter as a potenFal control feature to further improve the Coulombic efficiency and reproducibility through a customized pulsed formaFon protocol. As can be seen in the figures (Fig. . a, b and Fig. . a, b, c), metallic Li is electroplated as separate islands rather than conFnuous films, probably due to low Li content (charge capacity approx. 0.2 mAh/cm 2 ). It can also be seen that the higher substrate coverage with smaller islands is achieved at high C/5 current (Fig. We observe an improvement of surface coverage by applying a higher current, with the highest current C/2 (Fig. . c) producing the smallest and densest islands compared to C/5 and C/8 (Figs. 3. b and a, respecFvely). This behaviour is in accordance with theory, as the nucleaFon rate is increased at higher current densiFes compared to lower current densiFes . Comparing the morphology of the islands, C/5 and C/2 pulse-currents with millisecond pulses produce more compact, smoother, and larger "rock-like" grains (Fig. . e and f, respecFvely), while C/8 with seconds-long pulses produce sharp, needle-like grains (Fig. The increase in deposited Li by approx. factor of 3 is expected as the current density applied in the C/2 protocol is approx. 3 Fmes higher than in the C/5 protocol. For C/8 with ton=1 s, toff=2 s protocol the esFmated number of monolayers per 1 s on-Fme is 0.08, which is close to the esFmated value for C/5 with ton=0.25 s, toff=0.75 s. However, the longer off-Fme of 2 s could allow for surface diffusion and rearrangements of deposited Li leading to rough, "needle-like" morphology (Fig. ), which differs significantly from "rock-like" grains obtained by C/5 with ton=0.25 s, toff=0.75 s (Fig. ). the simplified elements is as follows: R1 represents the parallel resistance created by the movement of acFve ion (lithium ion) and counter charge in the separator under the external electric field. In the case of formaFon of the so-called dead lithium (porous inacFve passive structures), R1 also contains a contribuFon of migraFon of acFve and non-acFve charges in such "dead" porous system (reference 12). R2 can be approximated by (reference 12):