The SSA energetic metrics include the calculation of equivalent series resistance (RES, Ω.cm 2 ), gravimetric capacitance (Cs, F.g -1 ), areal capacitance (CA, F.cm -2 ), volumetric capacitance (Cv, F.cm 3 ), charging time (tg, s), total charge stored during charging (Qc, C), coulombic efficiency (ηc, %), energy efficiency (ηe, %), and energy loss (ΔE, J). These metrics were obtained from galvanostatic chargedischarge curves. where 𝑉 𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 is the potentiostatic voltage (either 0 V or -1 V), 𝑉 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 is the voltage at the start of the charging or discharging step, 𝐼 is the constant current, 𝑡 𝑔 is the charging time, 𝑚 is the total mass of two electrodes, 𝛥𝑉 is the charging potential window, 𝜌 is the density of electrodes, t is the average thickness of the electrode pair, C is the absolute capacitance, 𝐸 𝑑 is the energy delivered during discharging, and 𝐸 𝑐 is the energy consumed during charging.