catalyst. This interfacial configuration is crucial for understanding LRE effects at catalystionomer interfaces. Future endeavours in addressing these complexities should take advantage of recent developments in theory and modelling of electrochemical phenomena. For instance, the thermodynamics and kinetics of elementary steps involved in the microkinetic model can be calculated with increasing accuracy using grand-canonical DFT. In addition, Marcus-Hush-Chidsey theory should be employed instead of the Butler-Volmer equation to describe the electron-transfer kinetics at high overpotentials and in the case of the solvent reorganization energy changing markedly with electrode potential. Furthermore, the mean field EDL model can be refined and complemented by incorporating atomistic and molecular details obtained from first-principles calculations. Finally, development of high-performance computation infrastructure and rapidly emerging machine learning techniques pave the way towards handling complexities of real-world electrocatalytic systems.