A specific surface area of 23.3 m²/g is considered moderate for TiO₂-based materials, suggesting that the synthesized catalyst possesses sufficient active surface sites to support photocatalytic processes. The surface area determines the extent of pollutant adsorption, a prerequisite for efficient degradation. Pollutants must first adsorb onto the catalyst surface, where they interact with reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during photocatalysis. Hence, maintaining an optimal surface area is essential for maximizing the degradation of target compounds like ciprofloxacin.