Fig. Electrochemical modeling results. a, Deconvoluted average overpotentials and active particle population at the onset of the reading step vs. writing rate, defined as follows: the reaction overpotential of a single particle is the overpotential driving the reaction, and it corresponds to the difference between the surface chemical potential of the particle and the electrolyte chemical potential at a specific electrode depth; the diffusion overpotential is defined as the difference between the surface chemical potential and the equilibrium potential of the material; the transport overpotential is the difference between the electrochemical potential of Li ions at the Li-metal electrolyte interface and the electrochemical potential at the current collector. The total overpotential is the difference between the equilibrium chemical potential of the LFP plateau and the potential at 55% SOC. b, Simulated voltage profiles for the memory protocols of LFP at writing rates varying from 0.1C to 5.0C and fixed reading rate of 3.0C. c, Li-ion distribution in a randomly selected ensemble of representative particles of the phase-field simulation at 55% SOC during the reading step for the case of 0.2C and 5.0C writing rates. Blue corresponds to the FP phase, and red corresponds to the LFP phase. d, Fraction of particles in the charged, partially charged, and discharged states at 55% SOC at different writing rates. e, Evolution of the active particle population during the memory protocols for the simulation presented in b. A particle is considered active if its average lithiation state is between 15% and 85%.