where η bat is the round-trip battery efficiency, which decreases linearly over the battery's lifetime (refer to Table ), η m is the motor efficiency (0.9 from Cascadia 41 ), η i is the inverter efficiency (0.95 from Zeman et al. ), η gs is the gear-system efficiency (0.97 from Verbruggen et al. ). The battery efficiencies were obtained from experimental lab-scale testing performed by Preger et al. with a charge and discharge rate of 0.5C over the entire battery capacity. This is a representative baseline for this study because the charge/discharge Crating for trucks is approximately 0.2 based on an 800 V vehicle architecture and an average power demand of 170 kW (see Supplementary Information for details). The motor efficiency is based on the Cascadia HVH410-150D commercial electric motor for RPMs between 500 and 2200, which is the usual operating regime for heavy-duty trucks 41 (see Supplementary Information for details). However, in certain instances P wheel can be negative. For example, when the truck decelerates or is moving downhill, energy recovery is possible using regenerative braking. In this case, we use Equation .