where CI grid,i is the grid carbon intensity and V M T i are the vehicle miles traveled in the year i of the truck's lifetime (or its equivalent in km), and η t is the transmission efficiency to account for losses in electricity distribution (0.95 from EIA ). Similar to emissions from battery manufacturing, we account for the effect of payload penalty using the f P P term. The grid carbon intensity has been projected over time by various models from the International Energy Agency (IEA), the MIT Economic Projection and Policy Analysis (EPPA), and the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) for various policy scenarios (see Figure and details in Supplementary Information). Our analysis uses the year-by-year projection of the US grid carbon intensity obtained by fitting from EIA data up to 2050. We assume BETs to have the same usage (distance traveled per year) as diesel trucks which is reported by Burnham et al. .