The theoretical capacity of the cell was determined by calculating the product of the electrode's main body area (30 mm 2 ) and the areal loading of the NMC811 electrode, assuming minimal contribution from the tab to the total capacity. For the cell containing a 2.2 mAh cm -2 electrode, the calculated theoretical capacity was 6.4 mAh. A low-current potentiostat (SP-300, Bio-logic SAS) was utilized, employing a constant-current constant-voltage (CC-CV) charge protocol. Each cell was charged to specified voltages (3.8 V, 4.0 V, 4.1 V, 4.2 V, 4.3 V, 4.4 V vs Li/Li + ) before discharging to the same voltages. Charging and discharging were conducted at a C/3 rate based on the calculated theoretical capacity. Cells were allowed to rest once the current dropped below the C/20 threshold after the CV step, during which tomograms were obtained.