(1), (2) Through a multi-stage process, normal cells transform into tumour cells to cause cancer, which usually progresses from a precancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), cancer is a leading cause of death globally, with approximately 10 million cancer-related deaths in 2022. Furthermore, IARC predicts 35 million new cancer cases in 2050, an increase of 77% compared with 2022. This emphasizes the urgent need for sustained efforts in research, treatment, and prevention to address the escalating global burden of the disease. Conventional therapeutic strategies which include surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy have improved cancer patient survival rates; however, their efficacy in achieving complete eradication is limited. The surgery effectiveness is often hindered by the varying reactions of early-stage malignant tissues, causing significant disruptions in nearby organs or tissues. Radiation therapy side effects include early symptoms, predominantly skin reactions like erythema and desquamation, delayed effects including atrophy, fibrosis, and damage to blood vessels and neurons. (8) When administered through traditional delivery systems, chemotherapeutic agents lack specificity toward cancer cells, leading to severe adverse effects, such as dose-dependent hematotoxicity, acute cardiotoxicity, and the emergence of multi-drug resistance following prolonged drug exposure. ( ), , The lack of specificity is further aggravated by disease-related challenges since tumours become extremely heterogeneous as cancer progresses, resulting in a mixed population of cells with varying molecular characteristics and therapeutic response profiles. Additionally, the traditional delivery of anticancer agents suffers from other drawbacks like poor drug solubility, limited bioavailability, and pre-or post-absorption inactivation.