The bottom right of Figure shows chemical composition maps that are overlaid on a highangle annular bright field (HAABF) cross-section image recorded in STEM mode for enhanced presentation. The nozzle speed in the CED process controls the thickness of the printed Ni , while the thickness of the electroless deposited Cu is mainly controlled by deposition time (here, 80 -85 nm/min). The width of the fabricated trace is also controlled by nozzle speed as well as the nozzle diameter since electroplating is confined to the nozzle tip . After printing, we used optical microscopy to examine the fabricated traces. We observed two general characteristics: regions with uniform films (Figure ) and regions with non-uniform films (Figure ). The uniform regions appeared bright in optical images, while the non-uniform regions appeared darker. In top-view SEM images, the uniform region exhibited nearly full coverage of the substrate, albeit with some small holes (Figure ). In the non-uniform regions, we noticed globular-like growths and patches where no film had grown (Figure ).