Figure also shows that the largest share of the cost for a FOAK plant is attributed to capital cost items: project and process contingencies (see Figure ) contribute to 17-39%, depending on the configuration. The process contingencies represent the likely cost increase a technology will undergo when moving from lower TRL to a FOAK commercial plant (as a result of issues that require further engineering, the addition of auxiliary or balance of plant equipment, inefficiencies during scale up, among others). Other large cost contributors are direct equipment and installation costs (green bars), ranging from 16 to 40%, and owner's costs (blue bars), ranging from 7 to 14%. High equipment costs highlight the urgency and importance in research, development and construction of fit-for-purpose equipment, which is currently lacking (#10), for significant reduction in capital expenditure (CAPEX). Operational costs represent a smaller share of the total capture costs for some technologies (i.e., 1C and 2C) and a higher share for others (i.e., 1A and 2A). As we move from FOAK to the nth-of-a-kind (NOAK) plant, it is expected that capital costs will fall more rapidly than operational costs as a result of learning by doing and scaling. Reducing operational costs requires reducing energy use, which is limited by physical boundaries (a second law efficiency of >20% is seldom seen in separation technologies). To achieve further operational cost reduction, insights and breakthroughs in material science are also crucial (#1).