In potential-pulsed electrochemistry, the "off-time" is considered as means of double layer relaxation and electrochemical equilibrium and has led to confined electrochemical machining with STM tips, control over crystallographic defect formation or atomic layer electrochemical deposition, among other phenomena. Upon application of an external voltage at an electrode, ions in solution are expected to re-order and form the electrical double layer, ie. a region containing a non-zero charge density that screens the electrode potential.