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Music1TheOriginoftheComfortWomanThewordbodyisdefinedasaphysicalstructureandmaterialsubstanceofananimalorahumanbeing.Alongsidewar,peaceandotherbasicconstructsofhumanity,thebodyhasbeenconceptualizedandspanningoverhistoryandtime,consistentlyaffectinghumaninteraction,statecraftandpolicy.Kokutai,acombinationoftheChinesewordsfornationandbody,thathasbeentranslatedbytheJapanesetomeanthenationalbody,thenationalentityornationalpolity,referringexclusivelytonotonlyempirebuttothemakeupofthisbody,inotherwords,itssubjects.Althoughthemalebodyreadilycomestomindintheconsiderationofstateandpolicy,thefemalebodyinallofitsformsisacritical,yetoftendownplayed,factorintheriseofnations,statesandempires.InJapanesehistory,theviewofawomansbodyasanationalentityhascreatedaconsistentlyshiftingnarrativeofthefemale,creatinganddestroyingconceptionsinitspath.Fromcommodity,towife,toconcubineandtoprostitute,eachformtaken,ormoreaptly,createdforJapanswomen,bothnativeandimperial,culminatedinthemidcenturyintoauniqueyetterrifyingnewform:thecomfortwoman.Intheestablishmentofthecomfortwomanconstruct,however,bothgenderedbodies,maleandfemale,playsignificantroles.TheanalysisoftheriseofthisphenomenonconsiderstheJapanesemenandwomen,occupied,or,forourpurposes,Chinesemenandwomenandfinallycolonized,specificallyKorean,menandwomen.Thesesixcharactersfindaplaceintheanalysisofthethreemaintenantsthatcontributedtothecomfortwoman:history,racismandnecessity.ThehistoricalaspectexplorestheroleJapanesemenandwomenhadintheconstructionofnationalism,themasculineidealandtheriseofmilitarism.Contributingtothehistorical,althoughstandingaloneinimportance,isthedevelopmentofaracismthatspawnedasuperioritycomplexafflictedbytheJapaneseuponbothChineseandKoreanplayers.Finally,theanalysisisconcludedbyanexaminationoftheroleofnecessityinalliancewithhistoryandracismtospawnthesocialandpoliticalacceptanceofthecomfortwoman,thussolidifyingherplaceinJapanesehistory.Theassessmentwillproceedbyusingahistoricalstructure,spanningfromtheTokugawaperiodtoWorldWarIIthatframestheanalysisandincorporatesthefactorsofracismandnecessitytofleshouttheargumentasthecomfortwomanaroseintheJapanesehistoricalnarrative.ThusthroughastudyoftheoverarchingconstructsofJapanesehistory,racismandnecessity,inconcertwithavailabledata,theestablishmentofthecomfortwomanasaforciblycreated,statecommissionedconstructuniquetoJapanwillbepresentedandexplained.Asitemergedfromanalmosttwocenturylongwarringperiod,JapanfounditselfundertherelativelyunifiedandlargelypeacefulruleoftheTokugawashogunate1600-1868.Thisinitiallyfeudalregime,aswithallnovelgovernmentalstructures,strovetoreplacepreviouslawsandsystemswithpoliciesthatmarkedaneweraofgovernancewhichincludedareexaminationoftherolesofmaleandfemalebodieswithinthestate.InthisexaminationofpoliticalandsocialconstructsoftheTokugawashogunate,itisusefultoconsiderthisregimeinthreemainparts:Theearlyperiod,from1600totheearly1700s,theEdoperiod,fromabout1700totheearly1800s,andfinallythelateperiodwhichspannedfromthemid1800stotheendoftheshogunateera.Eachpartcharacterizesashiftinthepoliticalandsocialconsiderationofthefemalebodycrucialtodevelopinganunderstandingoftheearlynotionofthenationalbodythatwouldlaterspreadtotheoccupiedandcolonizedpolitiesaswell.TheearlyperiodoftheTokugawashogunatesreignischaracterizedbypoliciesthatreflectalackofconsiderationanddistinctionofthefemalebodyaswellasthestruggleofanascentregimetosolidifyitsrulethroughoutJapan.Markingtheendofcenturiesofcontinuouswarandconflict,theTokugawashogunatewasfacedwiththeinitialtaskofsolidifyingitsrulethroughoutthemanyprovincescomposingtheJapanesestate.Asaresult,numerousprovincialandgrouplawsthatexistedpriortothisnewregimeremainedinplaceastheTokugawastrovetoconstructaformofunificationappropriateforJapan.Itsettleduponfeudalism,whichallowed,atleastintheinitialperiods,eachfeudalentitytomaintaintheirgeneralsystemsofgovernance.Forwomen,thepersistenceoflargelymedievallawmadesuretheirpositionsremainedstatic.Thesepractices,however,provideimportantinsightintothebasisuponwhichfuturepolicieswouldbebuilt.LawcodesfromtheKamakuraperiod1185-1333consideredwomensbodiestobepartoftheirhusbandsorfathersestatesandheldtheoverarchingbeliefthattherewasnocleardistinctionbetweenwomenwhomadealivingsellingsexandthosewhodidnot...therewasnomeaningfuldifferencebetweenagiftfromaloverandapaymentfromaclientTheseideasremainedlargelyintactintheearlyperiodofTokugawareignasevidencedinthestatementsandaccountsgivenbyMasakage,aminemagistrateintheprovinceofInnai.Asanappointedtaxcollectorofhisprovince,Masakagesaccountsarenumerous,yetdisplayaconsistencyinthemannerinwhichwomenwereperceivedandtreated.Oneaccountdescribesthegeneralprocedureoftaxcollection:whentownsmendefaultedontheirtaxes,heMasakagefrequentlycommendedthemtoselltheirbelongingsincludingfamilymembers...whendebtorsrefusedtoliquidatetheirwivesandchildren,heseized.Togivethisdescriptionsomelife,MasakagedescribeshisdealingswiththemasterofanestablishmentcalledKyo-no-shio-yawhoowedseveralkaninoutstandingtaxes...Masakagepredictedthathewouldneverbeabletocompeltheprosecutortoreturn,sohedrewupalistofhisassetsanddecidedtoholdhisresidence,hiswifeandchild...ascollateralonunpaidtaxes.Voidofanyambiguity,Masakagesaccountsarebare,leavingnothingtodoubtandprovingwithallcertaintythelegalcommoditizationofwomen.Asamanappointedbylocalgovernance,thereisnodenyingthelinkbetweenMasakagesactionsandprovincialdecree.Furthermore,Masakageslanguageprovesthelackofdistinctiongiventowomeninthisera.Thevocabularyusedinhisaccountsdistinguishedbetweenpurchasedwomen,prostitutes,wives,daughters...howeverhisjudgmentplacedtheminauniformmassofwomen,allofwhomwereavailableforpurchaseandeligibleforsale...hemadethepointthatallwomeneventhosewhoweremarriedwereassetsthatcouldbeliquidatedandexchangedatwill.Stanley,Amy,SellingWomen:Prostitution,Markets,andtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapan.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2012,p.30Ibid.,p.30Ibid.,p.29Ibid.,p.33Ibid.,p.42ThedealingsofMasakageinInnaiareonlyamicrocosmforsimilardealingswithinprovincesthroughoutJapanatthetime.Withthewarringperiodonlyrecentlyconcluded,menmaintainedacontrolandaviewofwomeninformedbypoliciesfrommuchearlierperiods.Womeninthiscontextwerewithoutnuance,unshieldedfromthethreatofthewillofmaninthenameofbusinessandeconomics.AstheTokugawamovedtosolidifytheirpolicies,thisperiodofindistinctfemalebodiesisdiscontinuedasexemplifiedintheEdoperiod,buttheconceptofcommoditycontinuestoblankettheclassificationofthefemale.AstheTokugawashogunateenteredtheEdoperiod,prostitutionasatradehadproveditseconomicsignificanceandinturnbroughtsocialandpoliticalconsiderationsofwomentotheforefrontoflawsandpolicy.TheshiftsinpolicyareillustratedbyanexchangebetweenabrothelkeepernamedJinemonandtheshogunate.Inhispetitionforanewplotoflandforhisenterprise,Jinemonappealedtotheshogunatesinterestinpreservingsocialandpoliticalorder...andproposedasolution:iftheshogunatewouldgranthimaplotoflandandamonopolyonthesextrade,hewouldguaranteethatthesedangerswouldbecontainedpromiseofcontainmentnotonlyunderscoredtheincreasinglylucrativesextrade,butalsothecreationofanewcategoryofwomen,yujoorprostitutes,whowouldbeseparatedfromtherestofthecitysfemalepopulation.HousedintherestrictedandcontrolledYoshiwaradistrict,thedivisionbetweenwomenofsocietyandtheprostitutewasbeginningtotakeformbothliterallyandfiguratively,demonstratingaprominentshiftinshogunatepolicies.Nolongerwerewomenalarge,undistinguishablegrouptobetradedasmensawfit;therenowexistedaclearseparationbetweenthosewhodidusetheirbodiesandthosewhodidnot,inotherwordswomenofthegeneralsociety,mainlywives,andtheprostitutesofInadditiontoemphasizingadistinctionbetweenwomen,thisshiftestablishestheincreasinglyimportantroleeconomicswasbeginningtoplayintherevitalizationofsocialandpoliticalpoliciestowardswomenintermsofConfucianIbid.,p.45Ibid.,p.46filialideals.ThelongheldConfuciantraditionsofJapanesesocietywereasourceoflegitimacybetweenstateandsubject.ItshouldcometonosurprisethattheTokugawaregimereturnedtosuchidealswhenestablishingtheirlegalandsocietalframework.Inanattempttoapplytheroleofbenevolentgovernmenttothemostvulnerablemembersofthepopulationthegovernmentstressedthedecommodificationofwomen,transformingtheminsteadintosubjectswithroleswithinthehouseholdandsocietalgroups.Thusthefemalebodyofwomeninsocietywasregulatedbythefilialrelationshipofhusbandandwife.Prostitutes,althoughpositionedinaseparatepartofsociety,werenotexcludedfromsuchresponsibilityandwerethusbroughtundertheroleoffilialdaughter,servingtheirfathersandhouseholdsalthoughoutsideofthehome.Byservicetheshogunatereferredtothemonetaryexchangeofthisfemalebody,whichmaintaineditsattributeasacommoditybutcouldnowclaimaneconomicedgeabsentfromwomenofgeneralsociety,adistinctseparatingfactor.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatdespitethiseconomicdifferencethefactthatthebodiesofbothgroupsofwomenwereblanketedbyConfucianidealsspeakstotheirequalizedstandinginsocietydespitethephysicalandphilosophicaldistinctions.Theequalizationstemsfromtheircontinued,yetnowstatepromoted,dependencyuponamaleentity,ahusbandorafather,thatcreatedapatriarchalsystemthatconfirmedthelegalpowersofahusbandfatheroverhiswifewithapaternalisticedge,inthatitconferredadegreeofprotectiononthosewhoaccepteditsstructures.HenceitisduringthisEdoperiodthatmasculineundertonesbegintoconvergeupontheTokugawashogunateinamannersimilaryetlargelydistinguishablefromthepastera.Insteadofconsiderationsolelyascommoditytobeboughtorsold,women,bothmarriedandprostitutesalike,wereplacedinaprotectedpositionbybothhusbandandfatherandinturnthestatewhichactedasthebenevolentgovernment.TheplacementofthestateasprotectoranddictatorofthefemalebodyispivotalinthisperiodforwardasitgivesthestateapowerovertheJapanesewomanthatwillextendastheJapanesegrowIbid.,p.47theirempiretoencompassoccupiedandcolonialterritoriesandbodies.However,intheEdoperiod,althoughmasculinitymaintaineditssenseofentitlementtothefemaleJapanesebody,theConfucian,nurturingandcompassionateaspectslacedthismasculinitywithagentlertone.Aswillbeshownintheproceedingperiod,however,thissensitivityhasitslimitsastheconnectionbetweenprostituteandtheeconomyisdisputedheavilybysociety.ThelateperiodoftheTokugawashogunateexemplifiestheshiftinthepositionofthefemalebodyinJapanesepoliticsasprostitutesgarneredalargerplaceintheeconomicsphereconflictingtheConfucianandmasculineidealsofthestateaswellasbringingtotheforetheconflictbetweenthemarketeconomyandthehousehold.BythemidtolatenineteenthcenturytheelitesectorofTokugawasocietybegantofocustheirattentionuponthelinkbetweentheConfucianidealsdictatingthefamilyandthemarketsurroundingthesextrade.Whattheysawwasaweaknessinthefilialbondsofsocietyasitcameintodirectcontactwiththeeconomyintheformofprostitution.IntheEdoperiodthewidelyheldsentimentwasthataslongasthedaughtersofprostitutionheldallegiancetotheirfathers,theywereacceptedbysociety.Inthelateperiod,however,therapidexpansionofabusinessthatseparatedwomenfromtheirfamiliesandmarketedsexraisedthealarmingpossibilitythatsocialrelationsmightbesubsumedbymarketrelationsThisfearbegantotakeholdandgraduallytransformedthewayprostituteswereviewedinsocietyasembodiedinthetrialofTora,ayoungprostituteaccusedofattemptingtoseduceherbrothelkeepersson,Sobei.ThroughouthertrialToracontinuouslyclaimsfilialresponsibilitytoherparentsaswellasherbrothelowner.Whenaskedwhyshereturnedtoherbrotheltoworkafteranabsence,Torareplies,thatshehadreturnedoutofadesiretobefilialtoherparentsandfulfillherobligationstoSadaemonthebrothelownerBymentioningdutytobothherhouseholdandthebrothel,sheequatesthetwoentities,callingintoquestionhersupposedhigher,filialresponsibilitytoherfather.Asthetrialproceeds,questionsturntoherrelationshipwithSobei,specificallyIbid.,p.186Ibid.,p.180concerningtheinitiatoroftheseduction,towhichTorareplies,Itsallmyfault,shesaid,SobeiisblamelessNanigotomowatakushinotsumi,Sobeinotsuminiwakorenaku.ThisadmissionpointstoasenseofindependenceandautonomyofactionToraherselfadmitstoandclaimsresponsibilityfor,exemplifyinganothershiftfromtheConfucianrolesoccupiedbyprostitutes.Inherbook,SellingWomen:Prostitution,MarketsandtheHouseholdinEarlyModernJapanwherethisaccountisfound,AmyStanleyanalyzesTorastestimonyinthecontextofthepreviouslyunderstoodrolesofprostitutesduringtheEdoperiod.Toraneverdeniedherobligationstoherparents,butshebalancedeverymentionofthisresponsibilitywithanassertionthatshewasalsoindebtedtothebrothelkeeper.Thisplacedtherelationshipbetweenparentandchild,whichhadoccupiedaprivilegedplaceinthegenderedorder,onequalfootingwiththecontractualrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployee...byinsistingthatshehadbeenthesexualaggressorinherrelationshipwithSobei,Toradescribedherselfasatemptress,arolethatwascompletelyatoddswiththeimpressionherstepfatherhadhopedtocreateInresponsetohertestimony,SadaemonbacksupTorasclaimsbyreinforcingherobligationtohimandhisbusinessanditsequalfootingwithherresponsibilitytoherfatheraswellasherabilitytomakeherownchoices.HistestimonycompoundeduponTorasown,especiallyhisassertionofTorasagencywasanawkwardfitwiththenarrativethatportrayedprostitutesasfilialdaughterswhoworkedtoservetheirparents...interests.Moreover,TorasadmittedagencyalsopredeterminedherguiltintheseductionofSobei.Notonlydidsheseparateherselffromherfathershome,sheprovedthatshehadusedhersexualityforherowngain,thusclaimingculpabilityandplacingtheblamesquarelyonhershoulders.ThisepisodeisrevealingofthegreaterdevelopmentunderwayinJapanesesocietyintheconsiderationoftheprostitute.Theideaoftheagency,orindependence,wasbeingattributed,althoughunwelcomed,totheprostitutesduringthiseraasaresultoftheconsiderationsandreformsmadebypoliticalelites.Theywerebeingstrippedoftheirfilialstatusandtheirtiestothehomewerebecomingseveredasthemarketeconomybegantoengulfsociety.InsocietaleyesadutifuldaughterwasafiguretoIbid.,p.181Ibid.,pp.181-182Ibid.,p.185bepraisedandadmired,butalustfulwomendidnotdeservethesamekindof.ThusreplacingtheprostitutesrespectedfilialstatuswasasenseofshameplaceduponherbyexternalentitiesandshroudingherpositioninJapanesesocietyfromthenon.Furthermore,thenurturingaspectthathadonceblanketedallaspectsofthefemalebodyintheEdoperiodwasnowbecomingselectiveinitscoverings.Agencyandshamebecameattributedtotheprostitute,distancingherfromthewomenofsocietyandthusrupturingtheequilibriumbetweenthetwo.Hereconomicstandingwasapartofabroaderdiscourseaboutfemaleagencythatflourished...aspeopleacrossJapangrappledwithwomensengagementinthemarketeconomy.Asthemostobviousindicatorofthisflourishing,prostituteswereharbingersofthisdystopianfutureandwereconsistentlyexaminedforanysign,largeorsmall,thattheywerebenefittingfromtheirpositions.Thisscrutinyalongwiththeshamewasaproductofelitemaledissidenceaswellasadesiretoseparateawomanfromtheeconomicsfromthestate,yetatthesametimereapthesexualandmonetarybenefitsofherbody.Prostitutionwasneveroutlawedorbanned,butshunnedandplacedoutsidesocietybothliterally,asdisplayedbeforeintheEdoperiod,andfigurativelyastheirpositionbecamereexaminedinthelateperiod.Thusthepatriarchalattitudesofthepreviousperiodbegantoslowlydistanceitselffromtheprostitute,notentirely,outoffearoflosingasourceofrevenue,butenoughtobegintoshowageneraldisdainforherpositionthatresultedintheloweringofherstatus.Theattributionofagency,theshame,theloweringofherbodytosecondclassstatusduetoaharshermaleidealcontinuedastheTokugawashogunatecametoacloseandtheMeijirestorationbegantoreform,butnotcompletelymodify,thevaluesthedifferentconceptionsofthefemalebodynowheldinthestate.AstheMeijierabegan,apropensitytowardsstatesponsorshipofthesextradehadapowerfulimpactonthesocialstandingofprostitutesandwomenalikeandsolidifiedwithinsocietytheideaofthenationalbody.ForthenewleadersoftheMeijiera,economicprosperity,andasaresultthesextrade,washeldasapriorityasitcommandedastrongplaceinthebusinesssectorofJapan.Althoughnotanexplicitlylistedgoal,theMeiji,liketheTokugawashogunate,hadamonetarystakeinprostitutionthatforcedthemtovacillatebetweenanoutwardlimitationofthepracticeandamorehiddendesireforitssuccess.Soonthiscontradictorypositionfoundmiddleground,however,astheJapanesebecameopentoforeignersandthusturnedtothemforinspirationonnavigatingthesocialandeconomicneedsatloggerheadswithintheempire.AccountsgivenbyKawajiToshiyoshi,astatesman,wholaterbecamethechiefofpolice,senttoEuropetoobservesociety,illustratetheintensityofhisinterestinthestateregulatedprostitutionsystemshediscovered.InParis,ToshiyoshinotedthatRegulationsforStreetwalkerswereenforcedwherebyastreetwalkerwhopossessanofficiallyissuedlicensemustgothehospitaltwiceamonthinordertoreceiveamedicalexam,isaskedtoshowherlicensetothepoliceandgovernmentofficials,andmustobeytheirordersBerlin,justasFrance,prostitutes,streetwalkers,aswellaswomenemployedinbrothels,areregulatedbypoliceobservation.RegulationsstatethattheymustgotothepolicesmoralsofficeforanexaminationonceaweekandreceiveastampForexactlyoneyearstartinginSeptember1872,Toshiyoshiobservedasystemoflicensedprostitutionthatnotonlybroughttheregulationofprostitutionfirmlyunderstateandpolicecontrol,butalsomandatedasystemofperiodicalmedicalexaminationstopreventcertainvenerealdiseases,asubjectincreasinglyrelevantinJapanduetotheiropening.UponhisreturntoJapan,Toshiyoshi,alongwiththeGovernorofTokyoandtheViceMinisterofStateOkuboToshimichi,tightenedtheinstitutionalfoundationsofthepolicemechanismcontrolledbytheMinistryofHomeAffairs.And...heusedhispowerstointroduceaEuropean-stylelicensedprostitutionsystem.SuchordinancesincludedthetheMinistryofPopularAffairsNoticeof1871andtheFinanceMinistryProclamation127of1872whichYuki,F.TheLicensedProstitutionSystemandtheProstitutionAbolitionMovementinModernJapan.Positions:EastAsiaCulturesCritique5.11997:135-71Ibid.,p.138prohibitedbondageandrestrictedprostitutiontoavoluntarycontractsystemTheimpactofthisrevolutionarysysteminJapanesesocietywaslargelytwo-fold:First,theJapaneseundertheMeijierawantedtocentralizepowerandemulatethesenseofnationalismfoundinEuropebyunifyingallfeudalprovincesunderoneumbrellaoftheJapanesestate.Anyoutlierstothisunificationhadtobebroughtunderstate-controlbysomemeansandwiththeblueprintprovidedbytheEuropeanstates,MeijiJapancouldnowbringprostitutionundertheunifiedstate.Secondly,theJapanesestatenowpossessedawaytouseprostitutiontoitseconomicgainwithoutmakingthemonetaryaspectexplicitlyclearbyjustifyingstatecontrolwiththethreatofvenerealdisease.ThisnewfoundcentralizationandsenseofnationalismaswellastheawarenessofvenerealdiseaseareaspectsofJapanesesocietythatgrowinimportance,commandingmoreattentionfromsocietyandstate,especiallyasJapanbeginstomilitarizeinthe20Beforeturningtotheimpactofdiseaseuponthiseraandthenext,however,itisimperativetoconsidernotonlytheimpactthisstate-sanctionedsystemhaduponprostitutes,butalsouponwives,asthetwogohandinhand.Accordingtothecivilcodeof1898,Wivesweredefinedaslegallyincompetent,andthepracticeofhusbandskeepingconcubineswaslegalized..Suchalawdemonstratesthatamanorhusbandssexualself-indulgencewasnowfullysanctionedandcondonedby.Aconcubine,althoughnotonthesamelevelofsocietyasaprostitute,remainedafemaleentitythatmencouldcontrolbothinandoutsideofthehomenotformarriagebutforthefulfillmentofsexualpolygamousdesiresandprocreation.Inordertoproperlybalancethisnewfoundrightformen,womenhadtobeconstrainedastomaintainorderwithinsocietyasprovenbytheirnowlegallyrecognizedincompetency.ThisaspectofMeijilegalcodeisevenfurtherexemplifiedinthe1908criminalcodeonadulterythatheldIncaseswhereawifecommittedadultery,thewomanandherpartnerwouldbepunished...butincaseswhereaStetz,MargaretDiane,andBonnieB.C.Oh.LegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001p.5Yoshimi,Yoshiaki,andSuzanneOBrien.ComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryintheJapaneseMilitaryduringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.200 24Ibid.,p.201husbandcommittedadultery,hewasnotpunishedunlesshispartnerwassomeoneelseswife.Thislawisextraordinaryinthatitnotonlyprovestheadditionalconstrainplaceduponwivesintheirfilialroleandthelooseningthereofforthemen,butitalsoillustratestheupheldsanctityofmarriageandthedangersoftaintinganothersspouse.ItiswiththislawthatthesexualdoublestandardthatconstrainsJapanesebodies,bothmaleandfemale,becomesexceptionallyclear.Insuchasystem,awomansrolebecameexcruciatinglydefinedandbinding:awomanwasawife,aconcubineoraprostitute,eachroleequallyconstrainedbythestate.AsSarahSohaptlysummarizesinherbook,TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,state-ledproductionofanewsocialandpoliticaldiscourseonhumansexuality...engagedtheJapanesepublicinrethinkingthenatureofthebody,thepublicimplicationsofdisease,andnotionsoffemalesocialrolesandsexualityintheconstructionofanemergentconcept,thenationalbodykokutaiThenationalbody,referringnotonlytofemalebutmaleentitiesaswell,becameestablishedasaconsciouspoliticalconsiderationthatinformedtherulescreatedbythestate.Fromthispointforward,thecollectivebodyoftheJapanesepeoplewouldbecontrolled.Whetheritwastosendmentowarorwomentothebrothel,theideaofthedepersonalizationofthebodywasnowaseriousconsiderationoftheJapanesegovernment.Couplethisconceptionofanationalbody,nodoubtaproductoftheintensifyingnationalismoftheperiod,withtherisingconcernsofdiseaseaswellasthestaterecognitionofwhatmaybedefinedastheruleofmalesexrightorthestate-sanctionedallowanceofmalesexualfreedomattheexpenseofwomen,andthescenehasbeensetfortheriseofthecomfortstationasfurtherdictatedbyearly20centuryfascismandmilitarism.Inadditiontotheaforementionedshiftsinpolicyconcerningthesolidificationofthenationalbodyconcept,theriseofJapanesenationalismthatcoincidedwiththecentralizationofgovernmentcanalsobeattributedtotheSoh,SarahC.TheComfortWomen:SexualViolenceandPostcolonialMemoryinKoreaandJapan,Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008p.111Ibid.,p.116subsequentriseinJapanesesuperiorityandwithit,racism.Inadditiontothestateregulatedprostitutionsystem,theJapanesealsoadoptedtheracialphilosophiesandtheoriescirculatinginEuropethroughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.TheideasofHerbertSpencerandCharlesDarwinwereeagerlydisseminatedthroughoutJapanpartlybecausetheyfellinlinewithracialideasalreadyheldwithinthestate.InearlyJapanesehistory,thecategorizationofpeopleswasseenasusefulandextendedfromChinesenotionsoftheworldasmadeupofconcentriccirclesofincreasingstrangeness,largelybaseduponhabitsandcustomsheldbytheirAsiaticneighbors.ThisledtoethnographicdescriptionsbyJapaneseexplorersthateasilylentthemselvestothedivisionoftheworldintofivemajorraces...jinshu..Whatsmore,risinginterestsingeneticsandeugenicsbegantotakerootinJapanesesocietyleadingtoperceptionsoftheJapaneseassomethingofasuperiorracenotunliketheirGermanNazicounterparts.Baseduponearlyconceptionsoftheirorigins,theJapanesebegantorevitalizeprevioustheoriesoftheirdecentfromthegods,exceptthistimewithinthecontextofthescientificracialmovement.TheJapanesebegantoviewthemselvesasaChosenpeopleorgodsthatneedednomorallawlikethebadChinesebutcoulddependontheirheartstoshowthemtheway.Withtheadventofracialsciencealongwithbroaderknowledgeofgeography,JapanesecouldnowsensiblyplacethemselvesandtheAsiancontinentatthecenteroftheworldand,further,claimraciallinktoallpeoplesoftheglobe.Dr.TsunekichiKomakioftheKyotoImperialUniversitybroadcastedhisthoughtsonthesubjectbystakingJapaneseclaimtoabsolutelyeverything.America,heclaimed,originallybelongedtoAsia...thecoldandwarmoceancurrentsmeetneartheJapanSea,whichisoneindicationofAsiasclaimastheworldcenter.IntermsofAsia,naturallytheAsiaticracecamefromaJapanesestrainandthusallcultureandreligiousactivityareunitedunderMorris-Suzuki,Tessa.DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan.Osiris13.11998:354-75. 29Ibid.,p.358Padover,SaulK.JapaneseRacePropaganda.PublicOpinionQuarterly71943:191-204. 31Ibid.,p.195Japansemperor.ToSouthAmericaheclaimedPeru,amongothercountries,baseduponculturalconnectionwithsunworshipwhichisacharacteristicofAfricawasapartoftheAsianpeninsula,aclaimbaseduponideaspopularwiththeancientGreeks.EveninEurope,therewasAsiaticbloodrunningthickintheveinsoftheinhabitantsinnorthernEurope.InsouthernEurope,inFrance,wefindmanyancienttoolsformallyusedbythepeopleofAsia.continents,Dr.KomakialsoheldthattherewerenoSevenseas,butonlyonesea,anditisconnectedtoJapan,wherethesunisrising.AlloceansaretoberecognizedasagreatJapanesesea.TheideasofthisJapaneseacademicpointtooneconclusion:JapanwasthecenterofAsiaandAsiawasthecenteroftheworldSuchwasJapansconceptionofitself,butitsideasofothernationswithintheAsiansphere,specificallyKoreaandChina,heldtheotherasstrikinglyinferior.Since1868,JapanhaddevelopedadisdainforotherAsiannationsforfailingtorespondsuccessfully,asithaddone...totheWesternencroachment.AsacountryinAsia,Japancouldnotbutfeelasenseofshame,especiallybecauseithadbenefittedculturallyfromotherolderAsiancountries,suchasChina...andevenKorea.theJapanesesettheirsightsonotherAsiannations,justificationsforinvasionaswellastheaforementionedcontemptwerenuancedbyracialperceptions.Ononehand,theJapanesesawtheirfellowAsiansassimilartothemselves,acharacterizationthatjustifiedtheirrighttoguideorleadthepoliticalandeconomicdestinyofneighboringcountries.Ontheotherhand,however,racialandethnicdistinctionswereusedofficiallyandunofficiallytojustifydiscriminationoftheother.Asiansingeneralwereseenasinferior,butKoreanswereheldasespeciallyinferiortotheJapanese.Describedasdependent,dirty,sly,emotionallyvolatileandlackinginanysenseofhygiene,ignorant,impatient,extravagant,Ibid.,p.196Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001p.7Morris-Suzuki,Tessa.DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan.Osiris13.11998:354-75.dissolute,pronetogambling,andfilledwithvanity,Koreanswereidentifiedassecond-rateandwerethusseenasagroupneedingtobemadesimilartothe.NishimuraShinji,aprominentculturalanthropologist,assignednumericalrankingstoJapananditscoloniestomeasurenationalspirit.InTable1,Nishimurasfindingsarepresented,clearlydisplayingthatKorea,rankednumbersixoutofthesixcountriesexamined,heldthelowestlevelsofspirit,andthuspresentedanenigmathatneededtobesolved,accordingtoNishimuraAlthoughnottheonlyexplanation,NishimurasfindingscoincidewiththeoverhaulofJapaneselegalcodes,traditionsandculturalaspectsthatwereblanketedoverKoreabothbeforeandespeciallyaftertheirannexationin1910.ForKoreanandChinesewomen,theyremaineddistinctfromtheirJapanesecounterpartswhoweredefinedunderthenationalgenderideologyofgoodwifeandwisemotherwhereascolonizedwomenweredisposablesexualcommoditiestobemobilizedmuchlikeJapaneseprostitutesofthatage.Thus,whenJapanbegantocarrytheirlicensedprostitutionsystemovertothatofKoreabetween1881and1916,itshouldcometonosurprisethattheKoreanprostituteandtheJapaneseprostitutewerenotPark,Kyeyoung.TheUnspeakableExperiencesofKoreanWomenUnderJapaneseRule.WhittierLawReview2000:567-619BEBATINO BACIAL SCIENCE IN WABTIME JAFAN 373 TaIIe 1. SlvenglI oJ NalionaI Spivil, BanIed I Begion Adapl- Becep- Coopev- Feace- aIiIil MoIiIil livil alion JuIness MovaIil Avevage BanI Japan pvopev 2 3 2 1 2 4 2.33 1 HoIIaido 4 2 4 3 3 6 3.67 4 Taivan 3 5 3 4 1 2 3.00 3 Kovea 6 4 6 5 5 3 4.83 6 MancIuvia 5 1 1 2 4 5 3.00 2 CIina 1 6 5 6 6 1 4.17 5 SOUBCE.-NisIinuva SIinji, NiIon ninzoIu no vis6 TIe ideaI oJ lIe Japanese elInic gvoup ToI o ToI odo, 1939, p. 282. IncIudes KavaJulo. nineleenlI cenluv , il vas onI in lIe 1930s lIal lIe slalislicaI slud oJ nass sociel Iegan lo give lIese specuIalions a scienliJic veneev. In nan va s, lIis slalislicaI anaI sis oJ elInic cuIluve, vilI ils avIilvav avevaging oJ pveseIecled gvoups avound pvedeJined cvilevia oJ diJJevence, vesenIIed lIe Iionelvic lecIniques oJ scienliJic vacisn, vIicI veve nov Ieginning lo Ie cvilicized I vvilevs IolI in Weslevn Eu- vope and in Japan. WIiIe eugenic lIeovies and Iionelv veve aIandoned I nan lIeovisls aJlev lIe FaciJic Wav, Iovevev, eJJovls lo noIiIize ps cIoIog , socioIog , and slalislicaI suvve lecIniques Jov lIe scienliJic anaI sis oJ lIe pecuIiavilies oJ Japanese cuIluve conlinued lo JIouvisI-and indeed gained nev nonenlun vilI lIe vise oJ so-caIIed NiIonjinvon lIeovies oJ lIe Japanese in lIe 1960s and 1970s. FOSTWAB LEOACIES A gIance al sone oJ lIe vavline deIales suvvounding vaciaI science suggesls lIal lIe Iislov oJ vaciaI lIougIl in Japan Ias Ieen nove conpIex and, in sone va s, nove lvouIIing lIan is oJlen assuned. Suppovl Jov Japans inpeviaI expansion in Asia vas sonelines associaled vilI a IilevaI IeIieJ in lIe vaciaI puvil oJ lIe Japanese Iul couId aIso Ie suslained I quile diJJevenl pevspeclives on vace. BaciaI lIeovisls IiIe Ko ana Eizo accepled lIe divevse ovigins oJ lIe Japanese peopIe vIiIe sliII IeIieving in lIe genelic supeviovil oJ lIe nodevn Japanese and in lIeiv gIoIaI nis- sion lo coIonize and vuIe Easl Asia. CuIluvaI anaI sls IiIe NisIinuva SIinji veve nove caulious aIoul lIe signiJicance oJ Iionelvic sludies Iul nonelIeIess nanaged lo deveIop lIeiv ovn slalislicaI pseudo-science lo suppovl nolions oJ Japans elInic supeviovil . MeanvIiIe, SIinnei MasanicIi and Kada Telsuji, vIiIe vejecling sci- enliJic vacisn, luvned univevsaIisl nolions oJ lIe navcI oJ Iunan pvogvess inlo an eIaIovale apoIogia Jov Japanese inpeviaI expansion in Asia. In eacI case, lIe lIeovisls oJ lIe Iale 1930s and eavI 1940s dvev on a vange oJ Euvopean and Anevican souvces and el vevovIed lIese souvces inlo lIeovies lIal veve dislincliveI adapled lo lIe civcunslances oJ vavline Japan. Indeed, valIev lIan sinpI adopling pvevaiIing Euvopean lIeovies oJ vace, lIe oJlen seen lo Iave deIiIevaleI sougIl oul veIaliveI oIscuve Weslevn I polIeses lIal veve veadiI naI- IeaIIe lo lIeiv ovn pevspeclives on Japans poIilicaI deslin . Table1Morris-Suzuki,Tessa.DebatingRacialScienceinWartimeJapan.Osiris13.11998:354-75equalsaseveryindiscretioncarriedoutagainstJapaneseprostituteswasworsenedforKoreans,Itwasillegaltoemploywomenundertheageof18asprostitutesinJapan,whileinKoreatheminimumagewas17...thefreedomtoquitwastheoreticallyestablishedbylaw,butsincequittingwasdifficulteveninJapan,itwasextremelydifficultinKoreawherewomenwereevenmorerestrictedThisconceptionofracism,mixedinwiththerisingideasofnationalismandmasculinityandpatriarchy,exceptnowtheyincludednewactorsintothenarrative:theoccupiedmenandwomenandthecolonizedmenandwomen.SuchincorporationsimplyexpandedtheviewofthenationalbodybeyondtheJapaneseshoresandtotheirimmediateneighbors.WiththeriseofmilitarismthatstartedwiththeMeijibutgreatlyexpandedinthe20centurywiththeintroductionoffascistideas,thepartnershipofthesebeliefsandracismwouldsetthesceneforthecreationofthecomfortstation,theprecursortothecomfortwoman.AstheMeijieratransitionedintothe20century,theunifiednationalism,racialsuperiority,paternalismandtosomeextentmilitarismextendedintothenewcenturyandwereexpandeduponasImperialJapanincorporatedFascismintoitspsyche.ThelargelyunderstooddefinitionoffascisminJapaninthe1930swasstatedas,thetotalitarianorganizationofgovernmentandsocietybyasinglepartydictatorship,intenselynationalist,racialist,militaristandimperialist.1930s,Japanchampionedmostifnotallofthesedescriptorsinitspoliticalandsocialandnowimperialisticstate.StretchingfromtheMeijiperiodtotheearlyShowaerabeginninginthemid1920s,Japanhaddevelopedacentralizedandnationalisticstate,unifiedunderthebenevolentgovernanceoftheemperorwhohadbeengivenunlimitedpoweroverthestateanditsmilitary.Afamilyempirehaddeveloped,coupledwiththenationalbodyconcept,designedtohelptheaverageJapanesecitizenbothmaleandfemaletoseehisplaceintermsofthe...nation,andhisrelationshiptotheEmperorinanunbrokenlinethroughduringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.204Willensky,Marcus.JapaneseFascismRevisited.StanfordJournalofEastAsianAffairs52005:SuchidealswereinlinewithMussolinisviewthatForthefascist,everythingistheState...theFascistState,thesynthesisandunityofallvalues,interprets,develops,andgivesstrengthtothewholelifeofthepeople.AddingtonationalismwasthisracialsuperioritycomplexthathadstrengtheneditsplaceinJapanesesocietyasitlookedabroadandincorporateditsneighborsintotheempire.SuchideasbeganintheMeijiera,butwerecompoundedinthe20centuryastheJapanesebecameactivelyinvolvedinWorldWarIanddevelopedadistrustofthewestandasubsequentneedtostrengthentheirimperialholdingsand,asaresult,theirsuperioritycomplex.Basedupontheeventsofthe1904-1905Russo-Japanesewar,theJapanesedefeatofRussia,whichwasperceivedatthattimetobeawesternpower,illustratedtotheJapanesetheWestsdesiretohaltJapaneseexpansion.Fast-forwardtothe1930swheretheJapanesemilitaristswhotookpowerbelievedthattheWestbetrayedanddiscriminatedagainstJapan.ThisfearofbeingbetrayedbyandisolatedfromtheWestledtoxenophobia,whichinturn,evolvedintoanardentemperorcult,andtheresolvetoguidetherestofAsiadevelopedintothegreaterEastAsianCoprosperitySphere,thedeclaredaimofthePacificWar.Inadditiontothexenophobiaandracialelements,thenationalisticsideofJapanalsoexhibitedfascistideals.ImperialJapanin1932,inthewordsofHiranumaKiichiro,aJapanesepolitician,wasanationconstitutedofoneruler,inanunbrokenlineofImperialdescent,andhissubjects...itisthedutyofthepeople,undertheEmperor,toexerttheirbesteffortstowardstheaccomplishmentsoftasksallottedtoThiscallforactionextendedoutwardstothecoloniesandoccupiedterritoriesand,aswillbeshownlater,designatedspecificrolesforwomenbasedupontheirplaceintheJapaneseImperialworldorder.Intermsofmilitarism,theJapanesewerecreatingamilitaryculturethatincludedsoldierandcitizen.KonoyeIbid.,p.65Fumimaro,primeministerofJapanatthetime,passedtheNationalGeneralMobilizationLaw,KokkaSodoinHo,whichaimednotonlytocreateanall-encompassingwareconomybutalsotocoalescetheJapanesecitizenryintoobedientandawe-aspiringsubjectsofthestate,thusdefiningthedutyofthecitizentotheStateandthestatemilitary.Moreover,thisconceptofdutycoincidedwithfascistideologywhichheldthatFascismisareligiousconceptioninwhichmanisseeninhisimmanentrelationshipwithasuperiorlawandwithanobjectiveWillthattranscendstheparticularindividualandraiseshimtoconsciousmembershipinaspiritualsociety,inotherwordsdutytothestatetrumpsalldutytotheself.suchdutyrunsparalleltomilitarism,theJapaneseconsidereditsmilitaryandmilitarismasoneofthemostimportantnationalpractices...necessaryfortherealizationofthatmorality,whichisthehighestobjectofthisnation.nationalism,unification,racialsuperiorityandmilitarismallplayedaroleinthefascistconceptionsoftheJapanesestatefromtheMeijiperiodonward.AsMarcusWillenskymostaptlystatesinhisworkJapaneseFascismRevisited,ImperialJapanwasfascistnotbecauseitsuccessfullycopiedwhatwashappeninginItalyandGermanybutbecausethatiswhattheMeijioligarchsintendedittobe,thoughatthetimetheylackedtheparticularwordtodescribeitassuch.Theimplicationsofsuchastateonwomenandfemalebodiesissimple:byimposingthecollectiveovertheindividual,allbodiesweretobeavailableandwillingtoworkfortheState.WiththeFifteenYearwarringperiodbeginningintheearly1930s,thisdutytothestateincorporatedthewareffort.Forthemalebody,thismeantbearingarmsforthestate,forthefemalebody,theirdutywasdefineddifferentlybasedupontheirstandinginsocietybutwasequalizedintheperceptionofwomeningeneralasvassalsoftheJapanesestatetobeused,andoftenabused,aslongasitbenefitedtheIbid.,p.66Ibid.,p.68Ibid.,p.69Ibid.,p.67AsJapanenteredthe1930s,withallitsnationalisticandnowmilitaristicfervor,itsubsequentlybegantheFifteenYearsWar1931-1945,acontinuousmilitaryconflictthatwoulddictateJapanesesocietyandmakethesexualuseofthefemalebodyanecessity.The1930sbeganwiththeMukdenIncident,aJapaneseengineeredconflictthatallowedtheirentranceintonorthernChina,thenknownasManchuria,andgaverisetointermittentfightingbetweenthetwostates.Sixyearslaterin1937theJapanesewouldbethrustintoalloutwarwiththeChinese,knownasthesecondSino-Japanesewar,abitterfightforcontroloverChina.ThiswarwouldsoonescalatefouryearslaterintothePacificWar,throwingtheJapaneseintothegreaterconflictknownasWorldWarII.ThisstateofconstantwargeneratedchangewithinaJapanesestatethatwaspoisedpoliticallyandsociallyformilitaristicintervention.Menfulfilledtheirdutytothestateassoldiers,fightingonthefrontlinesofconflict.Women,however,heldamorenuancedrole.Japanesewomenofsociety,thewivesofthemensenttothefrontlines,weretomaintaintheirpurestatusandpopulatethebourgeoninggeneration.Beyondthesewives,thesituationtookonamoresinisterlook.TheprostitutesofJapaneseandnowtheimperialsocietyincludingKoreaandChinaweretomaintaintheirpositionassexualcommodityofthestate.AsMargaretStetzandBonnieOh,authorsofLegaciesoftheComfortWomenofWorldWarII,describethesituation,womenhadtwinpatriarchalcommandsofprovidingcomforttofightingmenandproducingmalechildrentoreplacesoldierskilledinbattle.Thisdichotomyofrolesforwomendictatedwhatwasperceivedastheirdutyinthefirstera1931-1940oftheFifteenYearWar:raisingchildrenandpopulatingthefastemergingcomfortstations.Accordingtoofficialdocumentation,theJapanesenavyandarmyunitsaroundthetimeoftheShanghaiincidentin1932erectedthefirstcomfortstations.Inlate1938,agovernmentdocumententitledInregardtothecurrentstateofregulationsonprivateprostitutionintheconcessionandtheregulationofspecialprostitutesreservedforJapanesecitizensinShanghaiduring1938makesreferencetothestationsbystating,withthegreatincreaseinmilitarypersonnelstationedinArmonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,2001p.6theareaduetothesuddenoutbreakoftheShanghaiincident,thenavyestablishednavalcomfortstationsasameanstoaidinsupportingthecomfortofthosetroops,andthosestationshavecontinuedtooperateuptothepresent,thusprovingthatcomfortstationswereintroducedintothemilitarysystemthroughnavypersonnelaswellasthecomplicityoftheJapanesemilitaryandgovernment.Itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatastatethatalreadyconsideredawomensbody,bothwivesandprostitutesalike,tobewithinitssphereofcontrolcouldnow,inwartime,usethesewomentoadvancethewareffortinanywaytheysawfit.Theestablishmentofcomfortstations,therefore,wasinasense,natural.Andforthatreason,theviolationsof...humanrightsbecameinvisible.Withinthecontextofthetimes,thewomenwerenotseenasbeingharmed,butasfulfillingtheirdutytocountryandthussoldier.Asshownbefore,thenotionofthemalesexrightremainedprevalentwithinJapanesesociety,lendingitselfwelltothecreationofthecomfortstationtoservethesoldiers.Theinvolvementofthehigher-levelMilitarycommandprovesthisideabecauseitpositsnootherreasonforerectingcomfortstationsthenforthepleasureofsoldiers,nomentionoffemaledesireorneedispresent.Asthesoldierriskinghislifeforcountryandfulfillinghisrightfuldutyasdictatedbyfascistideology,thestatemustdoallthatitcouldtoensurehiswell-being.Thisideaisfurtherexemplifiedbythenumberofstationsbeingerectedandthesheerprofitgarneredbythosewhoestablishedthem.Recordsrevealfromthemidtolate1930s,someKoreanresidentsinShanghaibecamebusinessowners...inthecustomarytradeandthatfivecomfortstations...wererunbyKoreans.theseKoreansinparticular,PakIl-sok,anassociateinthecustomarytradeaswellasanofficerintheShanghaiKoreanAssociation,recordedanextraordinaryincreaseinbusinessandsalesonceheturnedhiscaféintoabrothel.AccordingtoPakspersonalbusinessstatements,PakbeganhisCaféAseaworthcapitalof2,000yenin1937,butwhenheturnedhisbusinessintoacomfortstationinOctober1939,hisduringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.44Ibid.,p.205Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008p.135officiallyrecordedcapitalwas30,000yen,whichquicklydoubledto60,000yeninNotonlydidPakssuccesscomefromhisexploitationofgrowthinabourgeoningmarket,inthiscasecomfortstations,butthisideaalsoshowsthatmenspleasure,specificallythatofsoldier,wastheforcebehindthedemandthatdrovePaksprofitmargintomorethanquadrupleinsize.ThisepisodealsodepictsthereachofthisnewfeatureofJapanesemilitarismintotheempire.TheKoreans,aswellastheJapanese,promotedthecomfortstation,anideaadvancedbytheJapaneseandclearlyadoptedbytheirimperialsubjects.ThemotivefortheKoreans,however,wasprofitdrivenandasshownabove,businesswasthriving.Itisimportanttonotethatthisera,referringtothebeginningoftheFifteenYearWarperiod,roughlyfrom1930to1938,didnotproducethecomfortwoman.Rathertheprostitute,ofeverynationality,Japanese,Koreanandthelike,populatedthesestations.AsnotedinthedecreebytheHomeMinistrysChiefofthePoliceBureauonFebruary23,1938,MattersConcerningtheHandingofWomenSailingtoChina,Japanesewomenmeantforcomfortstationsweretobechosenfromprostitutes,andnoothergroup.Itwasdeemedalegitimatetransitionforawomanwhoalreadyusedherbodyforeconomicgaintobetransportedtofulfilltheevengreaterdutytosoldierandstate.Thispolicy,however,wentbeyondthebordersofJapanandseepedintotheotherstatesofempire,specificallythatofKorea.TheworksofAsoTetsuo,amilitarygynecologist,showthatKoreansmadeup80to90percentofallwomeninbrothels,andsoldiers,aswellasvictims,havetestifiedthatthemajorityofwomeninsouthernAsianandtheSouthSeaIslandsbrothelswereAdditionally,accordingtoareportissuedbyAkamatsuKotora,governorofFukuokaPrefecture,datedNovember30,1937,KoreanwomenreceivedidentitypapersandpermitsfromtheYawatapoliceheadquarters...tobecomeservingIbid.,p.135duringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.100Kratoska,PaulH.AsianLaborintheWartimeJapaneseEmpire:UnknownHistories.Armonk,NY:Sharpe,2005.p.311womeninanavalcomfortstation.Furthermore,medicalrecordsindicate35womenoutof38whoreceivedmedicalexaminationswereKoreans,confirmingthatKoreansmadeupthemajorityofwomenfromthestart.ThuscomfortstationshadarrivedbythebeginningoftheFifteenYearWarandtheirpresencewasfeltbyall,fromthesoldier,tothebusinessownertotheJapaneseandKoreanprostitute.Thisconfigurationwouldproveunsustainable,however,asthetransitionintothePacificWarbeganinthe1940s,increasingthedemandsoldiersandthuscomfortwhichprovedthesupplyofprostitutestobeinsufficient.ItisatthisjunctureinhistorywhenthecomfortwomanwouldmakeherappearanceontheJapanesescene,bringinghorribleyet,intheeyesoftheJapanese,justifiabletruthtotheJapanesehistoricalnarrative.AcomfortwomanisafemalebodyoftheJapaneseempire,outsideofthesexualbusinessofprostitution,forciblytaken,kidnappedorintentionallymisledintothesextradeandforcedtoservetheJapanesesoldiersduringwartime.Todate,theactualnumberofcomfortwomenislargelyunknownduetotheattemptederadicationoftheirmemoryfromhistoricalrecordbytheJapaneseandKoreangovernments.Estimatesofthetotalnumberofcomfortwomen,therefore,rangewidelyandfallanywhereinbetween20,000and400,000.Thecontextwithinwhichthesewomencametobeislargelyexplainedabove:theimperialistandlargelyfascistJapaneseempire,fitwithpatriarchalandhypermasculineundertonesfeltthatthebodieswithintheirempire,bothmaleandfemale,hadnohigherdutythantobeusedforgoodofthestate.Inthemidstofwartime,thisideameantthatmenweretobecomesoldiersandwomenweretofulfilltheirtwincommandsofwife,motherandprocreatorforsomeandsexualslaveforothers.AtfirstHoward, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, London: Cassell, 1995 p.13prostituteswithintheempire,mainlyJapaneseandKorean,weretofulfillthisduty,butasthewarbecamelongerandmoremenwerecalledtoservice,demandforcomfortbegantooutrunthesupply.Inotherwords,prostituteswerenotnumerousenoughtofillallofthecomfortstationsarisingoneverybattlefronttheJapaneseoccupiedasthewarcreptintothelate30sandearly40s.Higherdemand,however,isonlyonepartofthereasoningbehindthistransferofduty,referringtothetransitionfromprostitutetoregularwomentofilltheroleofthecomfortwoman.Inordertocompletethepicture,theroleofvenerealdisease,sexualatrocityand,onceagain,thisideaofcomfortmustbeexamined.ThehistoryoftheJapaneseawarenessofvenerealdiseasebeganintheMeijierawithexposuretoWesternideasonthetopic,butbecameamorepressingconcernasJapanenteredthe20century.In1918,JapanalongwiththeWesternpowerssenttroopsintoRussiatosupporttheWhiteArmyagainsttheBolshevikRedArmyuprising.Thismilitarycampaign,knownastheSiberianExpedition,isnotofimperativeimportancetotheemergenceofthecomfortwomanexceptwherevenerealdiseaseisconcerned.ThisepidemicwasquicklyspreadingamongthesoldiersandbecominganobstacletotheoverallhealthandthereforeeffectivenessoftheJapanesearmy.Documentsshowthat1109soldiersweretreatedasVDpatientsbetweenAugust1918andOctober1920.Thisnumberbecomesstartlingwhencomparedwiththe1399deathsand1528causalitiesalsosufferedbytheJapanesearmy.Thesenumbersshowtheseverityofthediseaseepidemicamongthesoldiers,buttheyalonedonotcompletethepicture.AccordingtotheNorthChinaAreaArmysProceduresfortheHygieneEducationofKeyOfficersissuedin1940,theaveragenumberofdaysrequiredforrecoveryfromgonorrheawas91,fromsoftchancresearly-stagesyphilis58,fromsyphilis76,andfromhymphogranulomainguinal1,012.Thusnotonlyweresoldierscontractingdiseasesatahighrate,butthelongtreatmenttimeforthesoldiersmeantthattheyTanaka,Yuki.JapansComfortWomen:SexualSlaveryandProstitutionDuringWorldWarIIandtheUSOccupation,London:Rouledge,2002p.11Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008pp.68-69becameuselesstotheJapanesewareffort.ItbecomesclearthatVDposedaprominentproblemtoJapanesemilitaryofficialsinchargeofthesetroopswhosawtheirnumbersdroppingalreadyduetodeathandwoundsbutalsofromdisease.Comfortwomenwereviewedasthesolutiontothisproblem.Asnumbersofinfectionrose,prostituteswereseentobethecarriersofdisease.InoneaccountgivenbyAnazi,aformerfieldnurse,sherecountsanexchangebetweenadoctorandasoliderbeingtreatedfordisease.Anaziwrites,Ashethankedthephysician,thephysiciantoldhimtoneverforgethowhecontractedtheterriblediseaseinthefirstplace.Youhaveawifeandchildren,right?Thesoldierreplied,Yes,Ihaveawifeandtwochildren.Butyoustilllikewomenandbuythemfrequently,right?Yes,Iamnotamanthatdislikeswomen.tothephysiciantheonlyexplanationforthesoldiersdiseasewastheprostitutespopulatingthecomfortstationsatthetimethusperpetuatingthegrowingbeliefthatthesewomenwerethesolecauseofVDinfection.ThusthegoalsoftheMinistryofWarchangedaccordinglyasaddressedinthedecreereleasedonSeptember191940entitledMeasuresforenhancingmilitarydisciplinebaseduponexperiencesintheChinaincidentwhichclaimedthatthePsychologicaleffectsthatthesoldiersreceiveatthecomfortstationsaremostimmediateandprofoundandthereforeitisbelievedthatthe...preventionof...VDisdependantonsuccessfulsupervisionofthesecomfortstations.ThusVDpreventionbecameatoppriorityandcalledforasolutionthatrequiredfemalebodiesthatwereuntouchedbydiseaseandpure.Sinceprostitutesfailedinthisregard,theJapanesemilitarycommandturnedtorecruitingwomenuninvolvedinthesextradewhowerelesslikelytocarrydiseasesofanyformtobecomecomfortwomen.TheseactionsareexemplifiedinthereportsgivenbyAsoTetsuo,thegynecologistandarmydoctor,whosereportin1939suggestedunmarriedKoreanwomenwithnopriorhistoryassexworkerswouldbefreeofvenerealdiseasesandthusmoreappropriatethanJapaneseFruhstuck,Sabine.ColonizingSex:SexologyandSocialControlinModernJapan.UniversityofCalifornia,2003p.144USOccupation,London:Rouledge,2002p.23prostitutesasgiftsfortheimperialtroops.AlthoughhisreportcannotbeheldastheprimarybasisoftheMinistrysactions,itdoesillustratethegreatermindsetofJapaneseofficialswho,atthetime,considerednon-Japanesewomenwhowerenotprostitutestobenotonlypurebutalsothemostadequatereplacementasgiftsforthetroops.ThustheneedtoeradicateVDbecameanadditionalfactorintheestablishmentofthecomfortwoman,butsexualatrocitieswouldalsobecomeaproblemthatcomfortwomenwereseentoresolve.ParalleltothisconcernoverdiseasecametherisingproblemofsexualwarfarebeingconductedbothunofficiallyandofficiallybytheJapanesearmy.TurningonceagaintotheSiberianexpedition,surveysdistributedtothesoldiersdemonstratethatinadditiontonottrulyunderstandingwhytheywereinRussiaandwhattheywerefightingfor.Thesoldierswerebytheirownaccounts,unruly...thereweremanyincidentsofrapeandofpillagingcivilianhouses...behaviorbecameaconsiderableproblemevenfortopmilitaryleaders.OkabeNaosaburo,anexpertonRussianaffairspresentinSiberiaandwitnesstothebehaviorofthetroopsduringtheexpedition,mostlikelyhadthisknowledgeinmindyearslaterwhen,asaSeniorStaffOfficerduringtheShanghaiExpeditionaryForcein1932,hewrotethefollowingaccount:RecentlyIhaveheardalotofscandalousstories,includingthatsomeofoursoldierswanderaroundseekingwomen.Suchaphenomenonishardtopreventasfightingbecomeslessfrequent.Thereforetheestablishmentofappropriatefacilitiesmustbeaccepted...Inconsiderationofoursoldiersproblems,wehavedecidedtointroducevariousmeasures.Yearslater,afterthebrutalandhorrifyingatrocitiescommittedbytheJapaneseinNankingin1937,JapanesemilitarycommandersbegantorecognizenottheatrocitiesbeingcommittedbythesoldiersbuttheunrestitwascreatingamongstciviliansinChina.TheoccupiedmenandwomenofChinawerebeginningtofeelthethreatoftheJapanesearmybearingdownuponthem.ForthewomenitcameintheduringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.46USOccupation,London:Rouledge,2002p.45formofunspeakableviolenceandforthemenintheformofaviolationoftheirwomenwhowereviewedasanextensionoftheirpropertyandhighlyacclaimedfortheirpuritynowtarnishedbytheJapanese.Itwasforthisreasonthatcomfortstationsand,withtheincreaseofsoldiersbeingdeployed,comfortwomenwereestablishedatvariousJapanesebasecamps.Tothisend,althoughaprincipleplayerintheestablishmentofcomfortstations,OkamuraYasuji,commanderofthe11Armyin1938andoftheoccupationofWuhanmadethefollowingstatement.Atpresent,almostallunitsareaccompaniedbycomfortwomencorps.Ithasreachedapointwhereacomfortwomencorpsisjustonemorelineofcommunicationcorps.Buteventhoughsuchunitsasthe6Divisionmarchwithacomfortwomencorps,thereisnoendtotherapes.Yasujisstatementarerevealingintwodistinctways.FirsttheyprovidesufficientevidenceforthefactthatcomfortwomenwereenlistedtostoptherapescommittedbyJapaneseforces.InclaimingthereisnoendtotherapesYasujisuggeststhereasoningbehindthecomfortwomenandsimultaneouslyadmitsdefeatinthisobjective.Tofurtherprovethisfailureamilitarydocumentwrittenin1942reportsthatoutofthe610crimescommittedbytroopsaftertheyhadinvadedcountriesSoutheastAsiaandthePacificIslandsin1942,anarmydocumentnotedtheprevalenceofrapes,asituationcausedbothbyinsufficientcomfortfacilitiesandinsufficientsupervision.ClearlytheprovisionofpurewomenfortheJapanesetotakeouttheiraggressiononinsteadofthewomenoftheoccupiedprovinceswasnotasolutiontotheproblem.InfactSarahSohsumsitupquitenicelyinthefollowingstatementontheintentionsoftheJapanesemilitaryItisimpossibletopreventrapeontheonehandwhileofficiallysanctioningsexualviolenceontheother.Thereisnoreasontoimaginethattherewouldbeanyrelationbetweencomfortstationsystemandasubstantivesolutiontotheproblemofpreventingrapes.Thus,theplanwaspronetofailurefromthebeginning.Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008p.66Ibid.,p.140Finally,thelastpurposefortherecruitmentofcomfortwomenwasofcoursetheprovisionofcomfortforthedisparateandpressuredJapanesetroops.AstheyearsofwarbecamelongerandmoreintenseandasthetransitionwasmadeintothePacificWar,Japanesetroopsweregivenlittle,ifanyvacationorchanceforrotation.LongdaysinthefieldandnostandardizedorstructuredsystemofleisureallotmentbroughtJapanesemilitarycommandtotheconclusionthatsexualcomfortwasnecessarytoquelltherestlessness.Toillustratefullythesituationcommandersfaced,MiyazakiShoichi,astaffofficerinthe11Armydescribestheconditionsinwhichthemilitarycomfortsystemexpanded.Youngofficers,draftedofficers,andthelikehadpoorcommandovertheirmen.Wecantignorethefactthattheywereunabletoasserttheirauthorityoverolderenlistedmen.Inordertomaintainacontrolledsystem,theJapanesecommandlookedtothestructureandvaluesputinplacebythestatefortheanswers.Themalesexrightfullycameintoplaywiththedecisiontoenlistcomfortwomenintheefforttoboostmorale.Thesecondarticleofthecomfortstationregulationsofthe3IndependentMountainArtilleryRegimentdatedNovember14,1939directlystatesthatThepurposeoftheestablishmentofspecialcomfortstationsistopacifyandmoderatethetroopsbrutaltemperamentandtoaidinthepromotionofmilitarydisciplinewhichplacescomfortanddisciplineinthesamecategory,thusexpoundinguponthethoughtprocessoftheJapanesecommand.Additionally,thedescriptionofcomfortwomenasemperorsgiftstothetroopslentitselfeasilytotheunwaveringdutythefascistJapanesestatepusheduponitscitizenry.Byplacingtheemperorsstampofapprovalupontheprovisionofthecomfortwomen,theirpresencewasglorifiedbecauseitrepresentedanacknowledgementbythehighestpowerinJapan,thebenevolentdictator,theverystateitself.ThepressuresandthepsychologicalexhaustionofwarareclearlydepictedintheaccountsofaJapanesesoldierdescribinghisexperienceandtherolethecomfortwomenplayedinthemitigationoftheintensity.Ibid.,p.74Thetimeswhenwethemenwewereduringthewarwouldbeholdingdownourpenisesasweranintothecomfortstationswere,afterall,whenwehadjustcomebackfromalongbattlejumpingforjoyandheadedimmediatelyoverthere...Theyallwantedtobefreedfromthestressofthesingularexperienceofhavingwalkedthelinebetweenlifeanddeath.Theystoodtherewaiting,withtheirpantsunbuttoned,fumblingwithloinclothslongsinceturnedadingygrayandfidgetingisitmyturnyet?Isitmyturnyet?...Wethoughttherewasnosenseoffulfillmentthatburnedsointenselyasthis.Thissincereyetfrankdescriptionofthesituation,probablyrecreatedintheotherJapanesecampsinsimilarways,displaystheintensityofthepressureunderwhichtheJapanesesoldierwasplacedand,asaresult,theintensityand,arguably,brutalitywithwhichtheyapproachedthecomfortwomen.ThustheexplanationofthenecessityofthecomfortwomancompletestheanalysisofhowandwhythecomfortstationsandcomfortwomenaroseinJapanesemilitaryhistory.Tracingtheoriginsofhypermasculinityandthepatriarchalstate,thestrongandunwaveringnationalismandracismthatbledintotheriseoffascistideals,andfinally,theshiftingwaysinwhichwomenandprostituteswerebothconsideredinthehistoricalthreadoftheJapanesestateallleadtothecreationofthecomfortwoman.Althoughtheanalysisspeaksvolumesaboutthecontextofthenarrativeinwhichthecomfortwomenwereplaced,thewordsofanoutsidercannotduringWorldWarII,NewYork:ColumbiaUP,2000p.74sufficetoshowthetruesituationthatsurroundedthelifeofthecomfortwoman.Itisimportanttoletthewomenspeakforthemselves.Thusapresentationoftherecruitmentmethodsofthecomfortwomenandexcerptsfromtheirstorieswillbeprovidedbelowinordertocompletethetragichistoricalepisodethatsurroundedthecomfortwoman.InaNoticefromtheAdjutanttotheChiefsofStaffoftheNorthChinaAreaArmyandCentralChinaExpeditionaryForce,theMinistryofWarlaidoutitsstrategyforrecruitment.InrecruitingwomendomesticallytoworkinthemilitarycomfortstationstobesetupintheareasafflictedbytheChinaIncident,itisfearedthatsomepeoplehaveclaimedtobeactingwiththemilitarysconsentandhavedamagedthehonorofthearmy,invitingthemisunderstandingofthegeneralpublic...Inthefuture,armiesinthefieldwillcontroltherecruitingofwomenandwillusescrupulouscareinselectingpeopletocarryoutthistask.Thetaskwillbeperformedinclosecooperationwiththemilitarypoliceorlocalpoliceforceofthearea.YouareherebynotifiedoftheorderoftheMinisterofWartocarryoutthistaskwiththeutmostregardforpreservingthehonorofthearmyandforavoidingsocialproblems.ThisdocumentissuedbytheMinistryofWarin1938makesvariousaspectsoftherecruitmentofcomfortwomenexplicitlyclear.Firstandforemost,theJapaneseIbid.,p.59militarywasnotonlyaparticipatoryforceintherecruitmentofcomfortwomenbutitissafetosayitwasthedictatingbodybehindthemethodsofrecruitment.Thechainofcommandcamefromthechiefofstaff,anentityfullyanddirectlyresponsibletotheemperor,toeachcommanderoftheexpeditionaryarmy,tothecampoverseerswhomanagedtheeverydaytasksandoperationsandfinallytothesoldierswhotookadvantageofthesystem,everylevelofthearmysystemwasexplicitintheriseofthecomfortwoman.Later,Japanesedenialofthecomfortwomenincidentisclearlyoutoflinewiththisofficialdocument.ThisstatementissuedbytheMinisterofWaralsodemonstratestheuseofforcesoutsidethemilitarytorecruitwomen,thusshowingthatblamefallsontheshouldersofnotjusttheJapanese,butasthestoriesofthecomfortwomenwillshow,theKoreansandallotherentitiesthatwereinvolvedintherecruitment.Lastly,thedocumentclearlyillustratesthewaymilitaryproprietywasviewedbytheJapanese.Thefactthatsomethingsohorrificastherecruitmentofyoung,innocentwomenwasjustifiedbecauseitwasdonehonorablyspeaksvolumesofthepsycheandmentalityheldbytheJapanesecommandinconsiderationofoccupiedbodies,imperialbodiesandwomenfrombothofthesesegmentsofsociety.Ininterviewsof19formercomfortwomen,theydescribedwithintheirstoriesthemethodsthatwereusedthatledthemtofindthemselvesintheprecarioussituationascomfortwomen.Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, London: Cassell, 1995 Table2illustratesthemethodofrecruitmentusedandthemainpersonwithwhomthewomendirectlyinteracted.OutofallthemethodssanctionedbytheJapanesegovernmentincluding,violence,falseemployment,abduction,andhumantrafficbycivilians,localauthority,militaryandmilitarypoliceandcivilianemployees,itisclearthatpromisesoffalseemploymentbyeverydaycitizenswasthemostpopularandarguablythemostsuccessfulmethod.Moreover,astudyconductedbytheHoward, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, London: Cassell, 1995 32KoreanCouncilandtheMinistryifGenderEqualityMOGErevealsthatmostKoreansurvivorswererecruitedeitherbyKorean64orJapanese35civilianprocurers,whereaspolice45andsoldiersorcivilianemployeesofthemilitaryalsoplayedsignificantrolesasrecruiters.ItbecomesclearthatciviliansofKoreandescentwerethemostusefulintherecruitmentofcomfortwomen.ThisfactlendsitselfwelltothefactthatanoverwhelmingnumberofcomfortwomenwereinfactKoreanwomen,oftenteenagers.ThesenumbersalsoshedsomelightupontheJapanesecommandsstrategyofrecruitment.Itisclearthatasenseoffamiliaritywasusedinordertogainthetrustoftheyoungwomen.Itisarguablyeasiertoconvincesomeonetoaccompanyyouortrustyouifyouareofthesamenationalbackground,especiallyinatimeofJapaneseimperialismandoverbearingracism.Morethantrust,however,theciviliansusedforrecruitmentwereusingamethodthatappealedtoKoreanslargelyofthelowestclasses.TheMOGEstudyalsorevealsatthetimeofrecruitmentmorethanone-thirdof172casesworkedasmaids26,factoryworkers20,employeesandrestaurantsorkisaenghouses9,farmers5,students5,ormerchants1,alljobstakenbythelowerechelonsofKoreanfemaleJapanwasviewedasanationofprosperitythatofferedopportunitytoayounggirloflowstatus,thusapromiseofoccupationinJapanwasviewedasanopportunityfewgirlswouldturndown.ThisdataprovestheexplicitexploitationofthesocialstatusoftheKoreanyoungwomen.Byusingatacticthatwasbaseduponofferingadesiredopportunitytopoorwomenwhohadlittlechoicebuttoaccept,theJapanesegovernmentwasintentionallylookingtomisleadtheseyoungwomentoalifeunimaginabletomanyofthem.ThestoriesofKimHaksun,KimTokchinandYiYongsukaresullenandterriblydetailed,butonlythroughtheirvoicemaytheaforementionedtacticsbetrulyunderstoodandonlythroughtheirstoriesmaythejourneyofthecomfortwomanbegivenlife.Chicago:UniversityofChicago,2008p.139Ibid.,p.139Howard, Keith. True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women: Testimonies Compiled by the Korean 33KimHaksun-BitterMemoriesIAmLoathtoRecallKimHaksunwasbornin1924inJilin,ChinatoKoreanparentsWhenwefinallyarrivedinJapan,wehadlunchinarestaurant.WewereabouttoleavewhenaJapanesesoldierbeckonedourfosterfatherover.HewasamilitaryofficerwithtwostarsonhislapelandheaskedifwewereKoreans...Youmustbeaspy,comewithme.MyfriendandIwerebustledawaybyothersoldiers.Wewereledalongabackstreetandcametoaplacewhereanopentruckwasparked...Theytoldustojumpinand,whenweresisted,theyliftedusintothemassofsoldiers.Afterafewminutestheofficerwhohadtakenourfosterfatheroffreturned,andthetruckimmediatelyspedof...Crouchedinacorneratthebackofthetruckwewept,shockedatwhatjusthappened.Wewereterrified.Someminuteslaterwenoticedanothertruck,justlikeours,followingusItwasdark.Wewerentawareofwhatwasgoingonandcouldntevenguesswherewewere.MyfriendandIweresentintoaroom,wherewesatandlookedateachother.Wehadnoideawhatwasgoingtohappen.Alittlelater,theofficerwhohadtakenourfosterfatherawaycamein...Hedraggedmeoffandheldmeclosetohim,tryingtotakemyclothesoffatthesametime.Istruggled,butintheendmyclotheswerealltornaway.Hetookmyvirginity.DuringthenightherapedmetwiceWhenweheardwomensvoicesoutside.TheywerespeakingKorean.Oneopenedthedoorandcamein.Sheaskedushowwehadgotthere.Myfriendtoldheraboutourjourney.Shesaid:Nowthatyouareherethereisntmuchyoucando.Thereisnowayyoucanrunaway.Youllhavetostayandacceptyourfate.Latersoldiersbroughtwoodenbedsintoourcurtainedroom.Wewereallocatedoneportioneach,andourlivesascomfortwomenbeganThesoldiersoftenwentoutonpunitiveexpeditions.Theywouldgooutatnight,stayawaythreeorfourdaysandreturnintheearlyhoursofthemorning...Whentheycameback,wehadtobeupearlytomeethim.Usuallytheywouldcometousintheafternoon,eachwouldstayabouthalfanhour.When,moreinfrequently,theyhappenedtocomeintheevening,theywereoftendrunkand...theywouldtreatmeevenmoreroughlyCouncil for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan and the Research Association on the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan, London: Cassell, 1995 34Itseemedtousthatthesoldiersreceivedspecialpermissiontovisit.AtfirstIdidntknowwhethertheypaidusforourservicesornot,butlaterIheardfromSizuethattherankandfilepaid1.5yenavisitandtheofficerspay8yentostaythewholenight.Iaskedwhoreceivedthemoney.Allsherepliedwasthatweweretheoneswhoshouldbepaid.IneverreceivedanymoneyallthetimeIwasacomfortwoman.IdontknowwhatSizueknewtomakehersaysuchthingsWhyhaventIbeenabletoleadanormallife,freefromshame,likeotherpeople?WhenIlookatoldwomen,Icomparemyselftothem,thinkingthatIcannotbelikethem.IfeelIcouldtearapart,limbbylimb,thosewhotookawaymyinnocenceandmademeasIam.YethowcanIappeasemybitterness?...OnceIamdeadandgone,IwonderwhethertheKoreanorChinesegovernmentswillpayanyattentiontothemiserablelifeofawomanlikemeKimTokchin-IHaveMuchtoSaytotheKoreanGovernmentKimTokchinwasbornin1921inSouthKyongsangprovince,whereherwholefamilylivedatanuncleshouse,farmingthelandbutscarcelymakingalivingItwasthemiddleofJanuaryorperhapsalittlelater...Iwas17yearsold.IheardgirlswerebeingrecruitedwithpromisesofworkinJapan.ItwassaidthatafewhadbeenrecruitednotlongbeforefromPyongchonwherewehadlivedwithmyuncle...IsuddenlyheardaKoreanmanwasintheareaagainrecruitingmoregirlstoworkinJapanesefactories.IwenttoPyongchontomeethimandpromisedhimIwouldgotoJapantowork.HegavemethetimeandplaceofmydepartureandIreturnedhometoreadymyselftoleave...IneverdreamedthatthiscouldinvolveWearrivedatKunbukstationandtransferredtoatrain.Itwasapublicslowtrain,andtravelledslowlydowntoPusan,whereweboardedaboat...AtNagasaki,avehicleresemblingabuscameandtookustoaguesthouse.Fromthatmomentonwewerewatchedbysoldiers.Iaskedoneofthem:Whyareyoukeepingushere?Whatkindofworkarewegoingtodo?.Hesimplyrepliedthatheonlyfollowedorders.OnthefirstnightthereIwasdraggedbeforeahigh-rankingsolderandraped...HepattedmybackandsaidthatIwouldhavetogothroughthisexperiencewhetherIlikeditornot,butthatafterafewtimesIwouldnotfeelsomuchpain...Everynightwewereraped.Onthefifthday,Iaskedoneofthesoldiers:Whyareyoutakingusfromroomtoroomtodifferentmen?Whatisourwork?Isitjustgoingtobedwithdifferentmen?Hereplied:Youwillgowhereverorderstakeyou.Andyouwillknowwhatyourjobiswhenyougetthere.Therewasatruckwaitingforusatthepier,whichwhiskedusaway...Therewasalargehouserightbesideanarmyunit,andweweretobeaccommodatedthere.Thehousewasprettymuchderelictandinsideandwasdividedintomanysmallrooms.ThereweretwoJapanesewomenandabout20Koreansthere,sowiththe30ofus...therewereabout50womenintotal.ThetwoJapanesewomenweresaidtohavecomefrombrothels.Theywere27or28,abouttenyearsolderthanalltheKoreans.ThesoldierspreferredusKoreangirls,sayingwewerecleaner.Weroseatseveninthemorning,washedandtookbreakfastinturns.Thenfromabout9oclockthesoldiersbegantoarriveandformorderlylines...Eachofushadtoserveanaverageof30to40meneachday,andweoftenhadnotimetosleep.Howcouldoneexpectotherwisewhenaninnocentgirlwassubjectedtosuchtorturedayandnight?Noneofushadchildren,butIheardthatsomebecamepregnantandwereforcedtoabortwithaninjectionordrugs.EventhoughIhadnodisease,Iwastoldatarecentcheck-upthatmywombismalformedfromtheabuseitreceivedinmyyouth.Amongus,thereweresomewhofoughtagainstthemen.Somewereaccusedofstealing,sometriedtoescapeonlytobedraggedback.Somewerebeatenandkickedbysoldiers...Soldierswhoreturnedfromthebattlefieldwerewild.Theywouldtrynottousecondoms...Thesoldierswhowereabouttoleaveforcombatweresomewhatmoregentle...therewereevensomewhowept,theyweresoscaredtogofight.Iwouldcomfortthemandtellthemtocomebacksafelyfrombattle.Whenanyreturnedalive,Iwouldbegenuinelygladtoseethemagain.YiYongsuk-IWillNoLongerHarbourResentmentBorntoKoreanparents,YiYongsukwasorphanedatayoungageandlivedwithafamilyinOsakabutreturnedtohercountryoforigin,Korea,in1937attheage15WhileworkinginYangsan,Imadefriendswithagirltwoyearsolderwholivedalonewithherfather.ItwasDecember1939,andIwas17.MynewfriendtoldmethattherewassomeonelocallypromisingworkinJapan;shesaidshewasgoingtogoandaskedifIwantedtogoalongwithher.WhetherIlivedinKoreaorinJapanmadenodifference,sobelievingthatlifeinJapanwouldbeeasierthaninKorea,IleftthefamilyIwasworkingfor.WemetacouplewhoweresaidtohavecomefromSinuiju,andwhohadrecruitedforgirlinadditiontous.Theyprovideduswithroomandboardandbroughtussomesimpleclothes.Theygotusalltohaveourhairbobbedandencouragedustoputmake-uponWestayedintheportovernight,andthefollowingmorningsailedonGuangdong.Whenwearrivedthereweremanysoldierswalkingaboutthedockside...Weweretakenbytrucktoathree-storyredbrickhouse.Assoonaswegotoff,wewereledintoalargeroomonthegroundfloor.Theroomhadadoublesteeldoor,andeachwindowwasbarredwithironrods...Wesoondiscoveredthatthereweremanyothercomfortstationsnearthisone,andthenumberofKoreancomfortwomenappearedtobeseveralhundred.ThewomeninthenewstationwereallJapanese.IwastheonlyKorean.Itwasmorespacious,sinceeachwomanhadaroomtoherself...Itwasmuchmorecomfortable.Mostofthesoldierswhocamewereofficers,althoughafewNCOsvisitedaswell.IwasabletoservethemwhenIwantedto.Mefeewasdividedwiththeproprietoronanequalbasis.IfIearnedenoughmoney,IknewIwouldsoonbeabletoreturntoKorea.LetmefinallysaysomethingIconsidertobeimportant.TheJapanesewerebad.ButtheKoreanswerejustasbadbecausetheyputtheirownwomenthroughsuchterribleordealsforpersonalprofit.ItwasbadenoughthatIhadtosufferwhatIdid.ButitisworsethatIwasmadebarrenbecauseofthisordeal...Wearefinished,andourbodiesareuselessaftersomuchabuse.Itdoesntmatterwhetherwereceivecompensationornot.Afterall,whatcouldwedowithmoney,withsofewyearsleftbeforewedie?AllIcanwishforisthatmycountryandmypeoplewillprospersothathistorycanneverberepeated.The 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Illinois, 478 U.S. 364 1986May 2016 Military Sexual Assault ReportBooks about JapanGeishaLiving Carelessly in Tokyo and ElsewhereWhirlwindKokology 2Cool JapanYakuzaThe Great RebalancingNew Japan ArchitectureHagakureKyotoThe Japanese Art of Stone AppreciationThe Complete Guide to Japanese KanjiCommodore Perrys Minstrel ShowTraditional Japanese LiteratureThe Accidental Office LadyBreaking Open JapanA Geek in JapanJapan UnmaskedOkinawa:The History of an Island PeopleThe Nicholas Linnear NovelsThe Complete Japanese Adjective GuideThe Sake HandbookJapan Country LivingCrafting SelvesInstant JapaneseA History of JapanLonely Planet Central Honshu KansaiLonely Planet Kyushu OkinawaJapanese For DummiesJapanese GardensAudiobooks about Japan47 Ronin A Samurai Story from JapanStarting Out in JapaneseTokyo ViceJapanese Women Dont Get Old or FatUndergroundDog ManWhirlwindThe Emperors GeneralLowdown, The47 RoninDashUnbeaten Tracks in JapanBushidoEast by West, Vol. 2Tales of Old JapanKwaidanJapanese Girls and WomenThe Mikado, Or The Town Of TitipuKokoroLetters of TravelCats ElopementDocuments about Japan10242013 GS 2HRC Paid Speeches Flags06042013 GS 12016 Edelman Trust BarometerGlobal Trends 2030Huntington - The Clash of Civilizations 1996 - SynopsisGlobal Competitiveness Report 20052006 Executive Summary2015 Edelman Trust BarometerKPCB Internet Trends 2012Alperovitz - The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb 1995 - SynopsisExecutive SummaryWorld Economic Forum - Annual Report 19981999Global Competitiveness Report 20022003 Executive SummaryList of participants at the World Economic Forums annual meetingLogistics in Korea Secularism Science in the 21st CenturyMobile Internet ReportGuide to Korean Culture English2012 Edelman Trust BarometerKyle BassGWI Social Report Q3 2014The Korea CollectionKPCB Internet Trends 2011No-Vacation NationLets go korea EnglishStudies in Comics 1.1DePauw Magazine Fall 2006Asian Art Now by Melissa Chiu and Benjamin Genocchio - ExcerptThe Re-emergence of EuropeBain Brief 8macrotrendsBooks about Sexual PromiscuitySugar PimpCaligulaChili Pimping in Atlantic CityMidnight Sex in DetroitPorn, Naked Women, Prostitutes, Hookers, Call Girls Erotic Photography AddictionTo Travel HopelesslyNaked VoicesOn the GameA Steady RainPhone Sex ManualMadam - Prostitutes, Punters and Puppets; Memoirs of a Very British BrothelMaking Sex WorkOn the StrollSouth StreetBangkok DaysThe StorytellerDuplicityJeff The Internet ProstituteConfidanteBlood Borne ConnectionsConfidanteMemoirs of a Wannabe Sex AddictEven The Best Hookers Need PimpsThick As ThievesCrystal PhoenixMassage and the WriterMore from PotomacFoundationTaming the DragonThe Korean Provisional GovernmentA Land War in AsiaBoiling Point on the BorderThe Battle of TsushimaBeyond Resource Acquisition? 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