 Experiment 1: We plan to study early blind subjects, late blind subjects and sighted controls during encoding into and retrieval from episodic verbal memory, and during verb generation, using functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI. The primary outcome measure will be the number of voxels significantly activated in primary visual cortex in early blind subjects vs. late blind subjects and sighted controls. Experiment 2: We plan to apply rTMS over left primary visual cortex, left prefrontal cortex, and a control site during encoding of words into and retrieval of words from episodic memory primary task, and during a verb generation task. Sighted volunteers, early blind and late blind subjects will be studied. The primary outcome measure will be performance on a memory test during rTMS applied to different sites in the different groups. This investigation is important because it can provide novel evidence on a hierarchically high function of the primary visual cortex in the blind. 