 While the deleterious effects of trans fat from industrial sources iTFA on cardiovascular health are well established, the impact of TFA from ruminants rTFA on cardiovascular risk factors has not been as well characterized. We have previously shown in men that a very high dietary intakes of rTFA 3.5 of energy leads to unfavourable changes in lipid cardiovascular risk factors that are similar to those seen with iTFA. However, our data also indicated that achievable intakes of rTFA that remain well above the current human consumption 1.5 of energy intake had neutral effects on plasma lipids and other cardiovascular disease CVD risk factors in men. Other studies have also suggested that the LDL and HDL response to very high dietary intakes of rTFA 5 of energy in women may be different than in men. 