geochemistry wikipedia geochemistry contents history edit subfields edit chemical element edit differentiation mix edit fractionation edit equilibrium edit kinetic edit cycle edit abundance element edit solar system edit meteorites edit giant planet edit terrestrial planet edit earth crust edit mineral constitution edit felsic intermediate mafic igneous rock edit trace metal ocean edit edit reference edit reading edit external link edit navigation menu personal tool namespaces variant view search navigation contribute tool print export project language wikipedia free encyclopedia jump navigation jump search science apply chemistry analyze geological system geochemistry science use tool principle chemistry explain mechanism major geological system earth crust ocean realm geochemistry extend earth encompass entire solar system important contribution understanding number process include mantle convection formation planet origin granite basalt integrated field chemistry geology geography history subfields chemical element differentiation mix fractionation equilibrium kinetic cycles abundance element solar system meteorites giant planet terrestrial planet earth crust mineral constitution felsic intermediate mafic igneous rock trace metal ocean reference read external link history edit victor goldschmidt term geochemistry swiss german chemist christian friedrich schönbein comparative geochemistry ought launch geochemistry geology mystery genesis planet inorganic matter reveal rest century common term chemical geology little contact geologist chemist geochemistry emerge separate discipline major laboratory establish start united states geological survey usgs begin systematic survey chemistry rock mineral chief usgs chemist frank wigglesworth clarke note element generally decrease abundance atomic weight increase summarize work elemental abundance data geochemistry composition meteorite investigate compare terrestrial rock early oliver farrington hypothesise difference relative abundance beginning field cosmochemistry contribute know formation earth solar system early 20th century max von laue william bragg show x ray scattering determine structure crystal 1920 1930 victor goldschmidt associate university oslo apply method common mineral formulate set rule element group goldschmidt publish work series geochemische verteilungsgesetze der elemente geochemical laws distribution elements subfield edit subfield geochemistry aqueous geochemistry study role element watershed include copper sulfur mercury elemental flux exchange atmospheric terrestrial aquatic interaction biogeochemistry field study focus effect life chemistry earth cosmochemistry include analysis distribution element isotope cosmo isotope geochemistry involve determination relative absolute concentration element isotope earth earth surface organic geochemistry study role process compound derive living live organism photogeochemistry study light induce chemical reaction occur occur natural component earth surface regional geochemistry include application environmental hydrological mineral exploration study chemical element edit building block material chemical element identify atomic number z number proton nucleus element value n number neutron nucleus sum mass number roughly equal atomic mass atom atomic number different neutron number call isotope give isotope identify letter element precede superscript mass number example common isotope chlorine cl cl know combination z n stable unstable isotope occur nature geochemistry stable isotope trace chemical pathway reaction isotope primarily date sample chemical behavior atom affinity element type bond form determine arrangement electron orbital particularly outermost valence electron arrangement reflect position element periodic table base position element fall broad group alkali metal alkaline earth metal transition metal semi metal know metalloid halogens noble gas lanthanide actinide useful classification scheme geochemistry goldschmidt classification place element main group lithophile combine easily oxygen element include na k si al ti mg dominate earth crust form silicate oxide siderophile element fe co ni pt os affinity iron tend concentrate core chalcophile element cu ag zn pb s form sulfide atmophile element o n h noble gas dominate atmosphere group element refractory remain stable high temperature volatile evaporate easily heating separate differentiation mix edit chemical composition earth body determine oppose process differentiation mix earth mantle differentiation occur mid ocean ridge partial melting refractory material remain base lithosphere remainder rise form basalt oceanic plate descend mantle convection eventually mix part erosion differentiate granite separate clay ocean floor sandstone edge continent dissolve mineral ocean water metamorphism anatexis partial melting crustal rock mix element ocean biological organism cause chemical differentiation dissolution organism waste mix material fractionation edit magmatic differentiation major source differentiation fractionation unequal distribution element isotope result chemical reaction phase change kinetic effect radioactivity large scale planetary differentiation physical chemical separation planet chemically distinct region example terrestrial planet form iron rich core silicate rich mantle crust earth mantle primary source chemical differentiation partial melting particularly near mid ocean ridge occur solid heterogeneous solid solution melt separate solid process know equilibrium batch melt solid melt remain equilibrium moment melt remove fractional rayleigh melt remove continuously isotopic fractionation mass dependent mass independent form molecule heavy isotope low ground state energy stable result chemical reaction small isotope dependence heavy isotope prefer specie compound high oxidation state phase change heavy isotope tend concentrate heavy phase mass dependent fractionation large light element difference masse large fraction total mass ratio isotope generally compare standard example sulfur stable isotope common s ratio concentration r s report δ s r r s s s r s ratio standard difference small ratio multiply part thousand refer part mil represent symbol equilibrium edit equilibrium fractionation occur chemical phase equilibrium equilibrium fractionation phase heavy phase prefer heavy isotope phase b effect represent factor b r r b b b liquid vapor phase transition water l v degree celsius o general fractionation great low temperature c factor kinetic edit equilibrium phase chemical compound kinetic fractionation occur example interface liquid water air forward reaction enhance humidity air water vapor move wind kinetic fractionation generally enhance compare equilibrium fractionation depend factor reaction rate reaction pathway bond energy light isotope generally weak bond tend react fast enrich reaction product biological fractionation form kinetic fractionation reaction tend direction biological organism prefer light isotope low energy cost break energy bond addition previously mention factor environment specie organism large effect fractionation cycle edit main article geochemical cycle climate model box model variety physical chemical process chemical element change concentration call geochemical cycle understanding change require detailed observation theoretical model chemical compound element isotope concentration function c r t position time impractical model variability instead approach borrow chemical engineering geochemist average concentration region earth call geochemical reservoir choice reservoir depend problem example ocean single reservoir split multiple reservoir type model call box model reservoir represent box input output geochemical model generally involve feedback simple case linear cycle input output reservoir proportional concentration example salt remove ocean formation evaporite give constant rate evaporation evaporite basin rate removal salt proportional concentration give component c input reservoir constant output kc constant k mass balance equation d c d t k c express fact change mass balance change input output time scale t k system approach steady state c steady k residence time define τ r e s c steady c steady o re o input output rate example steady state input output rate equal τ res k input output rate nonlinear function c closely balance time scale great residence time large fluctuation c case system close steady state low order expansion mass balance equation lead linear equation like equation system input output depend c result feedback tend maintain steady state external forcing perturb system return steady state time scale k abundance element edit main article abundance chemical element solar system edit abundance solar system element composition solar system similar star aside small anomaly assume form solar nebula uniform composition composition sun photosphere similar rest solar system composition photosphere determine fit absorption line spectrum model sun atmosphere far large element fraction total mass hydrogen helium remain element contribute general trend exponential decrease abundance increase atomic number element atomic number common odd numbered neighbor oddo harkins rule compare overall trend lithium boron beryllium deplete iron anomalously enrich pattern elemental abundance mainly factor hydrogen helium lithium form minute big bang rest create interior star meteorites edit meteorites come variety composition chemical analysis determine planetesimal melt differentiate chondrite undifferentiated round mineral inclusion call chondrule age billion year date early solar system particular kind ci chondrite composition closely match sun photosphere depletion volatile h c n o group element li b destroy nucleosynthesis sun group ci chondrite consider well match composition early solar system chemical analysis ci chondrites accurate photosphere generally source chemical abundance despite rareness recover earth giant planet edit cutaways illustrate model interior giant planet planet solar system divide group inner planet terrestrial planet mercury venus earth mars relatively small size rocky surface outer planet giant planet dominate hydrogen helium low mean density subdivide gas giant jupiter saturn ice giant uranus neptune large icy core direct information composition giant planet spectroscopy 1930 jupiter know contain hydrogen methane ammonium 1960 interferometry greatly increase resolution sensitivity spectral analysis allow identification great collection molecule include ethane acetylene water carbon monoxide earth base spectroscopy increasingly difficult remote planet reflect light sun dimmer spectroscopic analysis light planet detect vibration molecule infrared frequency range constrain abundance element h c element detect phosphorus gas phosphine ph germanium germane geh helium atom vibration ultraviolet range strongly absorb atmosphere outer planet earth despite abundance helium detect spacecraft send outer planet indirectly collision induce absorption hydrogen molecule information jupiter obtain galileo probe send atmosphere final mission cassini probe enter atmosphere saturn atmosphere jupiter find deplete factor compare solar composition ne factor surprising result noble gas element c n s enhance factor oxygen deplete attribute unusually dry region galileo sample spectroscopic method penetrate atmosphere jupiter saturn depth pressure equal bar approximately earth atmospheric pressure sea level galileo probe penetrate bar small fraction planet expect reach pressure mbar constrain composition interior thermodynamic model construct information temperature infrared emission spectra equation state likely composition high pressure experiment predict hydrogen metallic liquid interior jupiter saturn uranus neptune remain molecular state estimates depend model formation planet condensation presolar nebula result gaseous planet composition sun planet form solid core capture nebular gas current model giant planet core rock ice roughly size proportion hydrogen helium decrease earth masse jupiter saturn uranus neptune gas giant primarily compose hydrogen helium ice giant primarily compose heavy element o c n s primarily form water methane ammonia surface cold molecular hydrogen liquid planet likely hydrogen ocean overlay heavy compound outside core jupiter mantle liquid metallic hydrogen atmosphere molecular hydrogen helium metallic hydrogen mix helium saturn form separate layer metallic hydrogen terrestrial planet edit composition mars terrestrial planet believe come nebular material giant planet lose light element different history planet close sun expect high fraction refractory element later stage formation involve collision large object orbit sample different part solar system little systematic dependence position direct information mars venus mercury largely come spacecraft mission gamma ray spectrometer composition crust mars measure mars odyssey orbiter crust venus venera mission venus crust mercury messenger spacecraft additional information mars come meteorite land earth shergottites nakhlites chassignites collectively know snc meteorite abundance constrain masse planet internal distribution element constrain moment inertia planet condense solar nebula detail composition determine fractionation cool phase condense fall group condense material rich refractory element al follow nickel iron magnesium silicate kelvin k fe volatile rich metal silicate form fourth group fifth group feo enter magnesium silicate composition planet moon chondritic mean group ratio element carbonaceous chondrite estimate planetary composition depend model equilibrium condensation model planet form feeding zone composition solid determine temperature zone mercury form k iron remain pure metallic form little magnesium silicon solid form venus k magnesium silicon condense earth k contain fe silicate mars k feo incorporate magnesium silicate great problem theory volatile condense planet atmosphere earth atmosphere chondritic mix model composition chondrite estimate planetary composition example model mix component composition c1 chondrite refractory component c1 chondrite model abundance fractionation group estimate index element group refractory group uranium iron second ratio potassium thallium uranium molar ratio mgo thermal seismic model heat flow density fe constrain percent earth venus mercury u constrain earth abundance planet base educate guess difficulty model significant error prediction volatile abundance volatile partially condense earth crust edit abundance element earth crust common rock constituent nearly oxide chloride sulfide fluoride important exception total rock usually clarke calculate little earth crust consist oxygen occur principally combination oxide chief silica alumina iron oxide carbonate calcium carbonate magnesium carbonate sodium carbonate potassium carbonate silica function principally acid form silicate common mineral igneous rock nature computation base analysis numerous kind rock clarke arrive following average percentage composition earth crust sio al o fe o na k h tio p o total constituent occur small quantity usually oxide combine haphazard way example potash potassium carbonate soda sodium carbonate combine produce feldspar case form nepheline leucite muscovite great majority instance find feldspar phosphoric acid lime calcium carbonate form apatite titanium dioxide ferrous oxide give rise ilmenite lime form lime feldspar magnesium carbonate iron oxide silica crystallize olivine enstatite alumina lime form complex ferromagnesian silicate pyroxene amphibole biotite chief excess silica require neutralize basis separate quartz excess alumina crystallize corundum regard general tendency possible rock analysis approximately mineral rock contain numerous exception rule mineral constitution edit acid siliceous igneous rock contain great silica know felsic rock quartz abundant igneous rock basic rock contain silica rare contain silicon refer mafic rock magnesium iron average silica low olivine expect silica present great quantity ferromagnesian mineral augite hornblende enstatite biotite occur olivine potash high silica relatively low leucite present leucite occur free quartz nepheline likewise usually find rock soda comparatively little silica high alkali soda bear pyroxene amphibole present low percentage silica alkali great prevalence plagioclase feldspar contract soda potash feldspar earth crust compose silicate mineral abundance earth follow plagioclase feldspar alkali feldspar quartz pyroxene amphibole micas clay mineral remain silicate mineral earth crust earth compose non silicate mineral carbonate oxide sulfide determine factor physical condition attend consolidation play small means negligible certain mineral practically confine deep seat intrusive rock microcline muscovite diallage leucite rare plutonic masse mineral special peculiarity microscopic character accord crystallize depth near surface hypersthene orthoclase quartz curious instance rock have chemical composition consist entirely different mineral hornblendite gran norway contain hornblende composition camptonite locality contain feldspar hornblende different variety connection repeat say corrosion porphyritic mineral igneous rock rhyolite trachyte early crystal hornblende biotite find great number partially convert augite magnetite hornblende biotite stable pressure condition surface unstable high level ground mass rock augite universally present plutonic representative magma granite syenite contain biotite hornblende far commonly augite felsic intermediate mafic igneous rock edit rock contain silica crystallize yield free quartz form group generally designate felsic rock contain silica magnesia iron quartz absent olivine usually abundant form mafic group intermediate rock include characterize general absence quartz olivine important subdivision contain high percentage alkali especially soda consequently mineral nepheline leucite common rock separate alkali soda rock corresponding series mafic rock lastly small sub group rich olivine feldspar call ultramafic rock low percentage silica iron magnesia practically rock contain felspar feldspathoid mineral acid rock common feldspar orthoclase perthite microcline oligoclase have silica alkali mafic rock labradorite anorthite bytownite prevail rich lime poor silica potash soda augite common ferromagnesian mafic rock biotite hornblende frequent felsic rock common minerals felsic intermediate mafic ultramafic quartz orthoclase oligoclase mica hornblende augite little quartz orthoclase hornblende augite biotite little quartz plagioclase hornblende augite biotite quartz plagioclase augite olivine felspar augite hornblende olivine plutonic abyssal type granite syenite diorite gabbro peridotite intrusive hypabyssal type quartz porphyry orthoclase porphyry porphyrite dolerite picrite lavas effusive type rhyolite obsidian trachyte andesite basalt komatiite rocks contain leucite nepheline partly wholly replace felspar include table essentially intermediate mafic character consequence regard variety syenite diorite gabbro etc feldspathoid mineral occur transition syenite ordinary type nepheline leucite syenite gabbro dolerite theralite essexite mineral develop alkali rock uncommon convenient purely formal classification like outline treat assemblage distinct series nepheline leucite bear rock common minerals alkali feldspar nepheline leucite augite hornblend biotite soda lime feldspar nepheline leucite augite hornblende olivine nepheline leucite augite hornblende olivine plutonic type nepheline syenite leucite syenite nepheline porphyry essexite theralite ijolite missourite effusive type lavas phonolite leucitophyre tephrite basanite nepheline basalt leucite basalt classification base essentially mineralogical constitution igneous rock chemical distinction different group imply relegate subordinate position admittedly artificial grow growth science adopt basis minute subdivision erect subdivision means equal value syenite example peridotite far important granite diorite gabbro effusive andesite correspond plutonic diorite partly gabbro different kind rock regard aggregate mineral pass gradually transitional type common important receive special name quartz syenite nordmarkite interpose granite syenite tonalite adamellite granite diorite monzonite syenite diorite norite hyperite diorite gabbro trace metal ocean edit trace metal readily form complex major ion ocean include hydroxide carbonate chloride chemical speciation change depend environment oxidize reduce benjamin define complex metal type ligand water mixed ligand complex case ligand contain donor atom form strong complex call chelate ligand chelator common chelator edta ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid replace molecule water form strong bond metal plus charge strong complexation low activity free metal ion observe consequence low reactivity complexe metal compare concentration free metal chelation tend stabilize metal aqueous solution instead solid concentrations trace metal cadmium copper molybdenum manganese rhenium uranium vanadium sediment record redox history ocean aquatic environment form cdcl aq oxic water reduced environment high concentration cd marine sediment indicate low redox potential condition past prevalent form cucl aq oxic environment cu s reduced environment reduced seawater environment lead possible oxidation state copper molybdenum present oxidation state moo aq oxic environment present reduced environment form moo aq mos rhenium present oxidation state reo oxic condition reduce form reo res uranium oxidation state vi uo co aq find reduce form uo s vanadium form oxidation state hvo h vo reduced form include vo relative dominance specie depend ph water column ocean deep lake vertical profile dissolved trace metal characterize follow conservative type nutrient type scavenged type distribution distribution trace metal different residence time vary extent planktonic microorganism trace metal conservative type distribution high concentration relative biological use example trace metal conservative type distribution molybdenum residence time ocean x year generally present molybdate anion moo molybdenum interact weakly particle display uniform vertical profile ocean relative abundance molybdenum ocean require metal cofactor enzyme marine phytoplankton negligible trace metal nutrient type distribution strongly associate internal cycle particulate organic matter especially assimilation plankton low dissolved concentration metal surface ocean assimilate plankton dissolution decomposition occur great depth concentration trace metal increase residence time metal zinc thousand thousand year finally example scavenged type trace metal aluminium strong interaction particle short residence time ocean residence time scavenge type trace metal year concentration metal high sediment hydrothermal vent river aluminium atmospheric dust provide great source external input ocean iron copper hybrid distribution ocean influence recycle intense scavenging iron limit nutrient vast area ocean find high abundance manganese near hydrothermal vent iron precipitate find form iron sulfide oxidize iron oxyhydroxide compound concentration iron near hydrothermal vent million time concentration find open ocean electrochemical technique possible bioactive trace metal zinc cobalt cadmium iron copper bind organic ligand surface seawater ligand complex serve lower bioavailability trace metal ocean example copper toxic open ocean phytoplankton bacteria form organic complex formation complex reduce concentration bioavailable inorganic complex copper toxic sea life high concentration unlike copper zinc toxicity marine phytoplankton low advantage increase organic binding zn high nutrient low chlorophyll region iron limit 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berlin springerlink isbn natural environment research council geochemistry data model retrieved october rollinson hugh geochemical datum evaluation presentation interpretation repr ed harlow longman isbn white william geochemistry unpublished retrieve march external link edit geochemistry igneous rock gunn interactive v t e geology overviews outline geology glossary geology history geology index geology article history geology geochronology geological history earth timeline geology сomposition structure geochemistry crystallography mineralogy petrology sedimentology historical geology stratigraphy paleontology paleoclimatology palaeogeography motion structural geology geodynamics plate tectonic geomorphology volcanology water glaciology hydrogeology marine geology geophysics geodesy geomagnetism geophysical survey seismology tectonophysics applications biogeology economic geology engineering geology environmental geology planetary geology geobiology geologic model forensic geology 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